{"id":3462,"date":"2018-03-12T00:29:06","date_gmt":"2018-03-11T22:29:06","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/?p=3462"},"modified":"2018-03-17T05:34:32","modified_gmt":"2018-03-17T03:34:32","slug":"did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/","title":{"rendered":"Did Copernicus really made the (scientific) revolution?"},"content":{"rendered":"<figure style=\"width: 556px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f2\/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg\" width=\"556\" height=\"648\" alt=\"Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Portrait of Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus, exhibited at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toru%C5%84\" title=\"Toru\u0144\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Toru\u0144<\/a> Museum\u2013public domain image, via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In this blog and elsewhere, you have probably already seen the expression \u201cCopernican revolution\u201d. This expression highlights the fact that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nicolaus_Copernicus\" title=\"Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus<\/a> (1473 \u2013 1543) provoked a major change in perspectives by showing that it is more relevant to consider this is the Earth that is rotating around the Sun rather than the opposite. To this first upheaval echoes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Galileo_Galilei\" title=\"Galileo\u00a0Galilei\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Galileo\u00a0Galilei<\/a>\u2019s (1564 \u2013 1642) works. The latter, on the basis of Copernicus\u2019 work, among others, has definitively shown that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ptolemy\" title=\"Ptolemy\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Claudius\u00a0Ptolemy<\/a>\u2019s (around 90 AD \u2013 about 168) system, published in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Almagest\" title=\"The Almagest\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><em>Almagest<\/em><\/a><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">1<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_1\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">\u039a\u03bb\u03b1\u03cd\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2\u00a0\u03a0\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03b5\u03bc\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, around 150 AD. <em>\u039c\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03be\u03b9\u03c2<\/em>. An English translation: Gerald\u00a0J.\u00a0Toomer, 1998. <em>Ptolemy\u2019s Almagest<\/em>, second edition, Princeton University Press, New\u00a0York, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America. <a href=\"https:\/\/isidore.co\/calibre\/get\/pdf\/Ptolemy%26%2339%3Bs%20Almagest%20-%20Ptolemy%2C%20Claudius%20%26amp%3B%20Toomer%2C%20G.%20J__5114.pdf\" title=\"The Almagest\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> and according to which, in agreement with Aristotelian physics, the Earth was motionless in the centre of the World, was wrong.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2015\/08\/20\/how-i-extended-galileos-work\/\" title=\"How I extended Galileo\u2019s work!\">I have already<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2015\/09\/15\/everything-is-relative-my-dear-bruno\/\" title=\"Everything is relative, my dear Bruno!\">presented this<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2016\/03\/01\/william-had-a-good-razor\/\" title=\"William had a good razor!\">with a view<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2017\/04\/04\/falling-bodies-galileo-sets-up-aristotle-to-the-fall\/\" title=\"Falling bodies: Galileo sets up Aristotle to the fall\">from here<\/a>. As I have indicated before, they were both preceded by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nicole_Oresme\" title=\"Nicole\u00a0Oresme\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Nicole\u00a0Oresme<\/a>\u2019s (about 1320 or 1322 \u2013 1382) work. Galileo also used <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johannes_Kepler\" title=\"Johannes\u00a0Kepler\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Johannes\u00a0Kepler<\/a>\u2019s (1571 \u2013 1630) work, among others. Therefore, I have intentionally used the expression \u201cCopernican revolution,\u201d as well as \u201cepistemic revolution.\u201d But still remains the question I would like to tackle in this article: though this expression is commonly used, is it really relevant to talk about revolution? My purpose is also to lead you, my dear reader, to make some critical analysis of what I am publishing here.<\/p>\n<p><!--more--><\/p>\n<h2>What does \u201crevolution\u201d really name?<\/h2>\n<figure style=\"width: 1440px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Solar_sys8.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c3\/Solar_sys8.jpg\" width=\"1440\" height=\"904\" alt=\"Orbits of the planets.\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Representation of the orbits of the planets around the Sun; these orbits make them describe revolutions\u2013image from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NASA\" title=\"The National Aeronautics and Space Administration\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">NASA<\/a>, not subject to copyright, via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Solar_sys8.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>First of all, what do we mean when using the word \u201crevolution?\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/www.etymonline.com\/word\/revolution\" title=\"Etymology of \u201cRevolution.\u201d\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">According to etymology<\/a>, it has been introduced into English to name <a href=\"https:\/\/en.oxforddictionaries.com\/definition\/revolution\" title=\"Definition of \u201cRevolution.\u201d\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">the movement of an object in a circular or elliptical course around another or about an axis or centre<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>At this point, you may be wondering if I do not give in to the pleasure of throwing a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_troll\" title=\"Internet troll\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">troll<\/a>. Well, maybe, a bit\u00a0...<\/p>\n<h3>The point of view of the Enlightenment<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 964px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Immanuel_Kant_(painted_portrait).jpg\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/43\/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg\" width=\"964\" height=\"1388\" alt=\"Immanuel\u00a0Kant\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Portrait of Immanuel\u00a0Kant by an anonymous painter\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Immanuel_Kant_(painted_portrait).jpg\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Nowadays, the word \u201crevolution\u201d commonly refers to a dramatic and wide-reaching change in conditions, attitudes, or operations. The first occurrence of this usage concerning a scientific subject I have found comes from the <em>Encyclop\u00e9die<\/em><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">2<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_2\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Denis\u00a0Diderot and Jean\u00a0le\u00a0Rond\u00a0d\u2019Alembert (editors), 1751-1772. <em>Encyclop\u00e9die, ou Dictionnaire raisonn\u00e9 des sciences, des arts et des m\u00e9tiers<\/em>, Briasson, David, Le\u00a0Breton and Durand, Paris, 35 volumes. Text in French. <a href=\"http:\/\/enccre.academie-sciences.fr\/encyclopedie\/\" title=\"\u00c9dition Num\u00e9rique Collaborative et Critique de l\u2019Encyclop\u00e9die\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation of some of its articles is <a href=\"https:\/\/quod.lib.umich.edu\/d\/did\/\" title=\"The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d\u2019Alembert Collaborative Translation Project\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. It presents works from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Isaac_Newton\" title=\"Isaac\u00a0Newton\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Isaac\u00a0Newton<\/a><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">3<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_3\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Especially his most famous one: Isaac\u00a0Newton, 1687. <em>Philosophi\u00e6 naturalis principia mathematica<\/em>, John\u00a0Streater, London. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/ebooks\/28233?msg=welcome_stranger\" title=\"Philosophi\u00e6 naturalis principia\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation: Ierome\u00a0Bernard\u00a0Cohen and Anne\u00a0Whitman, 1999. <em>Isaac\u00a0Newton: The Principia, Mathematical principles of natural philosophy<\/em>, University of California Press. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.17centurymaths.com\/contents\/newtoncontents.html\" title=\"Isaac\u00a0Newton: Principia\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> (1642 or 1643 \u2013 1727) and some others as revolutions, that is to say as initiating some new era. Moreover, it seems that these so-called revolutions are an important reason in the initiation of the project of the <em>Encyclop\u00e9die<\/em>. In this book, \u201crevolution\u201d ultimately designates all that is part of the transformation of physical sciences, particularly mechanistic ones, between the 17<sup>th<\/sup> and 18<sup>th<\/sup> century. In short, it names the changes in scientific approach of which I have already presented some parts here.<\/p>\n<p>Concerning philosophy, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immanuel_Kant\" title=\"Immanuel\u00a0Kant\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Immanuel\u00a0Kant<\/a> (1724 \u2013 1804) named \u201cCopernican revolution\u201d the transition from a geocentric system to a heliocentric one<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">4<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_4\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Immanuel\u00a0Kant, 1781. <em>Critik der reinen Vernunft<\/em>, Johann\u00a0Friedrich\u00a0Hartknoch, Riga, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in German. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.deutschestextarchiv.de\/book\/show\/kant_rvernunft_1781\" title=\"Critik der reinen Vernunft\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation from Paul\u00a0Guyer and Allen\u00a0Wood: Immanuel\u00a0Kant, 1999. <em>Critique of Pure Reason<\/em>, Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/ebooks\/4280\" title=\"Critique of Pure Reason\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<h4>A long story<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 429px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:CopernicSystem.png?uselang=fr\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/9a\/CopernicSystem.png\" width=\"429\" height=\"381\" alt=\"Copernicus\u2019 heliocentric system.\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Simplified diagram representing Copernicus\u2019 heliocentric system from <em>De revolutionibus orbium c\u0153lestium<\/em>\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:CopernicSystem.png?uselang=fr\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Using the word \u201crevolution\u201d supports the idea that some sudden change have been made. However, as I have already <a href=\"http:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2015\/09\/15\/everything-is-relative-my-dear-bruno\/\" title=\"Everything is relative, my dear Bruno!\">indicated elsewhere<\/a>, back to antiquity there already were some models in which the Earth is not at the centre of the Universe. For instance, as reported <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archimedes\" title=\"Archimedes\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Archimedes<\/a><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_5');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_5');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">5<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_5\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">\u00c1\u03c1\u03c7\u03b9\u03bc\u03ae\u03b4\u03b7\u03c2, <em>\u03a8\u03b1\u00b5\u00b5\u03af\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2<\/em>. Text in ancient Greek. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.lix.polytechnique.fr\/Labo\/Ilan.Vardi\/psammites.ps\" title=\"Psammites\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by Thomas\u00a0L.\u00a0Heath: Archimedes, 1897. <em>The Sand-reckoner<\/em>, Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.lix.polytechnique.fr\/Labo\/Ilan.Vardi\/sand_reckoner.ps\" title=\"The Sand reckoner\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_5').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_5', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> (circa 287 \u2013 212 BC), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aristarchus_of_Samos\" title=\"Aristarchus\u00a0of\u00a0Samos\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Aristarchus\u00a0of\u00a0Samos<\/a> (circa 310 \u2013 230 BC) already proposed such a model, as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seleucus_of_Seleucia\" title=\"Seleucus\u00a0of\u00a0Seleucia\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Seleucus\u00a0of\u00a0Seleucia<\/a><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_6');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_6');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">6<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_6\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: Bertrand\u00a0Russel, 1945. <em>A History of Western Philosophy<\/em>, Georg\u00a0Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_6').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_6', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> (born around 190, active around 150 BC). Also, there are texts from ancient India mentioning such a system. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Al-Biruni\" title=\"Al-B\u012br\u016bn\u012b\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Al-B\u012br\u016bn\u012b<\/a> (973 AD \u2013 1048 or around 1052) has reported and commented these texts<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_7');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_7');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">7<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_7\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: Abu\u00a0al-Rayhan\u00a0Muammad\u00a0ibn\u00a0Ahmad\u00a0al-Biruni, edited by Eduard\u00a0Sachau, 1910. <em>Al-Biruni\u2019s India: an Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of Indiae<\/em>, Kegan\u00a0Paul, Trench, Trubner &amp; Co., London.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_7').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_7', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<p>Even by focusing only on the reintroduction of the heliocentric system during the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Early_modern_period\" title=\"Early modern period\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">early modern period<\/a>, it clearly appears to be the results of some maturation. Indeed, as I wrote before, Nicole\u00a0Oresme had already presented this system as credible<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_8');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_8');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">8<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_8\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Nicole\u00a0Oresme, 1377. <em>Livre du Ciel et du Monde<\/em>. Text in ancient French. <a href=\"http:\/\/expositions.bnf.fr\/ciel\/grand\/1-025.htm\" title=\"Le Livre du Ciel et du Monde\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_8').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_8', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Before him, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ibn_al-Shatir\" title=\"Ibn\u00a0al-Sh\u0101tir\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Ibn\u00a0al-Sh\u0101tir<\/a> (1301 \u2013 1375) had proposed a heliocentric system<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_9');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_9');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">9<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_9\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: Victor\u00a0Robert and Edward\u00a0S.\u00a0Kennedy, 1959. \u201cThe planetary Theory of Ibn\u00a0al-Sh\u0101tir,\u201d in: <em>Isis<\/em> 50, pp. 227 \u2013 235. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/227960?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents\" title=\"The planetary Theory of Ibn\u00a0al-Sh\u0101tir\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_9').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_9', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Then, Copernicus shows the interest of such a system<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_10');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_10');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">10<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_10\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus, 1543. <em>De revolutionibus orbium c\u0153lestium<\/em>, Johann\u00a0Petreium, Nuremberg, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in Latin. <a href=\"https:\/\/la.wikisource.org\/wiki\/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium\" title=\"De revolutionibus orbium c\u0153lestium\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by Edward\u00a0Rosen: Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus, 1992. <em>On the Revolutions<\/em>, John\u00a0Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.webexhibits.org\/calendars\/year-text-Copernicus.html\" title=\"On the revolutions\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_10').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_10', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<h4>The Copernicus case<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 1500px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d4\/Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg\" width=\"1500\" height=\"2060\" alt=\"Johannes\u00a0Kepler\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Copy of a lost portrait of Johannes\u00a0Kepler\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg?uselang=fr\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>It will be useful for what comes later to note that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andreas_Osiander\" title=\"Andreas\u00a0Osiander\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Andreas\u00a0Osiander<\/a> (1498 \u2013 1552), a theologian in charge of supervising the printing of Copernicus\u2019 work, took the decision of his own to precede this work with a warning. This warning indicated that the heliocentric system is nothing but a calculation hypothesis<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_11');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_11');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">11<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_11\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: John\u00a0Henry, 2012. <em>A Short history of scientific thought<\/em>, Palgarve Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hampshire, United\u00a0Kingdom.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_11').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_11', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. On the contrary, as soon as on the preface, Copernicus affirmed that this system is in conformity with the true constitution of the World. However, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_Bellarmine\" title=\"Robert\u00a0Bellarmine\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Robert\u00a0Bellarmine<\/a> (1542 \u2013 1621) will rely on this warning to consider that Copernicus did actually consider the heliocentric system as nothing but a calculation hypothesis.<\/p>\n<p>It is worthwhile to dwell a little on the case of Copernicus. Indeed, among all those I cite in this article, he probably is the one who worked the most individually. He was even relatively isolated. Anyway, he still had contacts with other astronomers, at least for example when he let circulating the manuscript often called <em>Commentariolus<\/em><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_12');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_12');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">12<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_12\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus, between 1511 and 1513. <em>De Hypothesibus Motuum C\u0153lestium Commentariolus<\/em>. Text in Latin. An English translation can be found in: Edward\u00a0Rosen, 2004. <em>Three Copernican Treatises<\/em>, second edition, revised edition, Dover Publications, New\u00a0York. <a href=\"http:\/\/copernicus.torun.pl\/en\/archives\/astronomical\/1\/?view=transkrypcja&\" title=\"Commentariolus\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_12').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_12', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, which already presented a heliocentric system. There was no mention of the name of the author\u2013Copernicus name, indeed. Nevertheless, it contributed to establish his reputation as an astronomer. It is this reputation that lead <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Georg_Joachim_Rheticus\" title=\"Georg\u00a0Joachim\u00a0von\u00a0Lauchen\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Georg\u00a0Joachim\u00a0von\u00a0Lauchen<\/a>, also known as Rheticus (1514 \u2013 1574), to collaborate with Copernicus<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_13');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_13');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">13<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_13\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Georg\u00a0Joachim\u00a0von\u00a0Lauchen, 1540. <em>Narratio prima<\/em>, Franz\u00a0Rhode, Dantzig, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in Latin. An English translation can be found in Rosen (2004), see note 12.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_13').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_13', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Therefore, the latter does not really correspond to the image of the scientist working alone and unrelated to the outside world.<\/p>\n<p>Also, it is difficult to know how much Copernicus was exposed to the heliocentric theories elaborated before his. However, note that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Domenico_Maria_Novara_da_Ferrara\" title=\"Domenico\u00a0Maria\u00a0Novara\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Domenico\u00a0Maria\u00a0Novara<\/a> (1454 \u2013 1504) hosted him during his studies in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Bologna\" title=\"University of Bologna\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Bologna<\/a> between 1496 and 1503. Domenico\u00a0Maria\u00a0Novara was already questioning Ptolemy\u2019s authority, especially because of the complexity of his system<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_14');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_14');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">14<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_14\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">For Copernicus\u2019 biography, one can refer to: Pierre\u00a0Gassendi and Olivier\u00a0Thill, 2002. <em>The Life of Corpernicus 1473 \u2013 1543<\/em>, Xulon Press.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_14').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_14', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. On the one hand, though he learned ancient Greek, Copernicus did not know Arabic. On the other hand, he studied in a university with many books, at a time of translation of Arab works. For example, until Rheticus brought him an edition of the original Greek text, he used a Latin translation by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gerard_of_Cremona\" title=\"Gerard\u00a0of\u00a0Cremona\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Gerard\u00a0of\u00a0Cremona<\/a> (1114 \u2013 1187) of the Arabic version of the Almagest.<\/p>\n<h4>Copernicus\u2019 posterity<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 295px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Prutenic_Tables.png\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/8d\/Prutenic_Tables.png\" width=\"295\" height=\"426\" alt=\"Prutenic Tables\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Frontpage of first edition Erasmus\u00a0Reinhold\u2019s <em>Prutenic Tables<\/em>\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Prutenic_Tables.png\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>What helped in initial spreading of the Copernican system is the publication in 1551 of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prutenic_Tables\" title=\"Prutenic Tables\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><em>Prutenic Tables<\/em><\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erasmus_Reinhold\" title=\"Erasmus\u00a0Reinhold\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Erasmus\u00a0Reinhold<\/a><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_15');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_15');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_15\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">15<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_15\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Erasmo\u00a0Reinholdo, 1551. <em>Prutenic\u00e6 Tabul\u00e6 C\u0153lestium Motuum<\/em>, Ulrich\u00a0Morhard, T\u00fcbingen, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/digital.slub-dresden.de\/fileadmin\/data\/278475426\/278475426_tif\/jpegs\/278475426.pdf\" title=\"Prutenic\u00e6 Tabul\u00e6 C\u0153lestium Motuum\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_15').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_15', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> (1511 \u2013 1553), an ephemeris useful to calculate the apparent positions of the Sun, the Moon, and the planets. These tables are the first produced using the Copernican system and were of a higher precision than the previous ones. If we must recognise that their precision was first due to the quality of the observations of Reinhold, they will ensure a good dissemination to the system on which they are based.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Kepler compiled works from several other authors, to which he added his own mathematical developments<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_16');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_16');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_16\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">16<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_16\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Johannes\u00a0Kepler, Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus, Michael\u00a0M\u00e4stlin, and Johannes\u00a0Sh\u00f6ner, 1596. <em>Mysterium cosmographicum<\/em>, Georgius\u00a0Gruppenbachius, T\u00fcbingen, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Reissued in 1621 with comments from Kepler. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.e-rara.ch\/doi\/10.3931\/e-rara-445\" rel=\"noopener\" title=\"Mysterium cosmographicum\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_16').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_16', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Eventually, Galileo has used works from Copernicus and Kepler and completed them with his own observations<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_17');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_17');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_17\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">17<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_17\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Galileus\u00a0Galileus, 1610. <em>Sidereus nuncius<\/em>, Thomam\u00a0Baglionum, Venice. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.e-rara.ch\/doi\/10.3931\/e-rara-695\" title=\"Sidereus nuncius\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation: Albert\u00a0Van\u00a0Helden, 1989. <em>Galileo\u00a0Galilei, Siderius Nuncius, or The Sideral Messanger<\/em>, The University of Chicago press. <a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/siderealmessenge80gali\" title=\"The Sideral messanger\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_17').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_17', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<p>I have cited many authors and books in the last paragraphs, even by comparison with what I usually do in this blog. This illustrate a fact I want to expose to your sagacity: in fact of a revolution, one sees it is a rather long history.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of a \u201cCopernican revolution\u201d is actually introduced by authors belonging to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lumi%C3%A8res\" title=\"Lumi\u00e8re\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Enlightenment<\/a> and it has been made with a purpose: for these authors, medieval thought was hampered by the domination of the Aristotelian system and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scholasticism\" title=\"Scholasticism\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">scholasticism<\/a>. Inasmuch as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aristotle\" title=\"Aristotle\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Aristotle<\/a>\u2019s (384 \u2013 322 BC) physics proved to be entirely wrong and as when you read some scholastic texts you are struck by the clumsiness of the reasoning, we can certainly praise having getting rid of these approaches. However, as these authors had such an agenda, they have presented things in a rather biased, if not partial, way.<\/p>\n<h3>A flourishing thinking<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 1040px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gutenberg.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/33\/Gutenberg.jpg\" width=\"1040\" height=\"1322\" alt=\"Johannes\u00a0Gutenberg\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Posthumous portrait of Johannes\u00a0Gutenberg\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gutenberg.jpg?uselang=en\" rel=\"noopener\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In fact, the Middle Ages, still more than a thousand years, is actually a more flourishing period than too often portrayed. Let\u2019s take an example which seems to me quite representative.<\/p>\n<p>Few years ago, Ivano\u00a0Dal\u00a0Prete (born in 1971) found a book from Fausto\u00a0da\u00a0Longiano published in 1542<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_18');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_18');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_18\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">18<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_18\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ivano\u00a0Dal\u00a0Prete, 2014. \u201cBeing the World Eternal: The Age of the Earth in Renaissance Italy\u201d, in: <em>Isis<\/em> volume 105, number 2, pp. 292 \u2013 317.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_18').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_18', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. This book tackles with meteorological science<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_19');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_19');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_19\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">19<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_19\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Fausto\u00a0da\u00a0Longiano, 1542. <em>Meteorologia<\/em>, Venice. Text in old Italian.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_19').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_19', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. At these times, it covered a wider scope than nowadays, including for instance geology and oceanography. Though scholars of the times used Latin to communicate to their peers, this book is written in (old) Italian: this is some popularisation work.<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the printing press was then in full expansion, as a century before <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johannes_Gutenberg\" title=\"Johannes\u00a0Gutenberg\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Johannes\u00a0Gutenberg<\/a> (circa 1400 \u2013 1468) <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Printing\" title=\"Printing\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">introduced in Europe removable type printing<\/a><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_20');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_20');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_20\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">20<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_20\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">It seems to me that the seminal work concerning the importance of printing on the evolution of thought is: Elizabeth\u00a0Eisenstein, 1979. <em>The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and cultural transformations in early-modern Europe<\/em>, Cambridge University Press, New\u00a0York. The author has made a version dedicated to popularisation: Elizabeth\u00a0Eisenstein, 1983. <em>The Printing revolution in early modern Europe<\/em>, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United\u00a0Kingdom.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_20').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_20', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Their prices having fallen considerably, a new public for the books had been constituted. As a consequence, books of all types appeared, not just for scholars. Among these works, many aimed to popularise the knowledge of the time.<\/p>\n<h4>The age of the Earth<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 2048px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Earth_Eastern_Hemisphere.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/6f\/Earth_Eastern_Hemisphere.jpg\" width=\"2048\" height=\"2048\" alt=\"The Earth\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Earth seen at the level of its equator\u2013image from the Nasa not submitted to copyright via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Earth_Eastern_Hemisphere.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>So here we have a book that can potentially be read by anyone\u2013well, anyone who can read. Its purpose is to present what is commonly accepted, rather than to address potentially controversial topics. Still, as already indicated, what we now call geology was part of the subject the author intended to develop. As a consequence, he addresses the question of the age of the Earth in his book.<\/p>\n<p>In the <em>Encyclop\u00e9die<\/em>, articles concerning fossils and the Deluge describe the years preceding its publication to be dominated by history of Creation as reported in Genesis. Biblical literalism, i.e. literal interpretation of all that is written in the Bible, was supposed to be the norm. Then, according to this literalism, the World would have been created around 4000\u00a0BC, precisely October 22nd, 4004\u00a0BC according to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Ussher\" title=\"James\u00a0Ussher\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">James\u00a0Ussher<\/a>\u2019s (1581 \u2013 1656) calculations<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_21');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_21');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_21\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">21<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_21\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">James\u00a0Ussher, 1650. <em>The Annals of the World<\/em>, E.\u00a0Tyler, London. <a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/AnnalsOfTheWorld\" title=\"The Annals of the World\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_21').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_21', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<p>If, as stated by encyclopedists, at this time Western thought was dominated by biblical literalism, Fausto\u00a0da\u00a0Longiano should indicate that the World was no more than 6000 years old. However, this is not the case: his book present a conception, indeed an Aristotelian one, according to which the slow erosion due to running waters and the accumulation of debris at the bottom of the ocean causes the renewal of the ocean floor. Then, the floor moves cyclically on the surface of the Earth, leaving behind new emerged areas and new mountains. A phenomenon presented as too slow to be humanly perceptible. It is even indicated that the soil is completely renewed every 36,000 years and that this duration is not a problem, the World being presented as eternal.<\/p>\n<p>By the way, if you are wondering, the age of the Earth is nowadays strongly estimated at about 4.55 billion years<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_22');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_22');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_22\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">22<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_22\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: US Geological Survey, 1997. Age of the Earth. <a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.usgs.gov\/gip\/geotime\/age.html\" title=\"Age of the earth\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_22').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_22', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<h4>But what the Church is doing?<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 2444px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Apostolic_Elemosinary.png?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/fd\/Apostolic_Elemosinary.png\" width=\"2444\" height=\"2447\" alt=\"Seal of Papal charities\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Seal of Papal charities\u2013public domain reproduction by Cle59560 via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Apostolic_Elemosinary.png?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>There is another point worth to be noted: in his work, Fausto\u00a0da\u00a0Longiano does not mention Genesis in any way. However, nothing indicates that the author considered his text could have offended or even surprised his readers. Likewise, Ivano\u00a0Dal\u00a0Prete has found no evidence that the Church had grieved him. Everything indicates that the book simply presents knowledges fairly widespread at the time.<\/p>\n<p>In the purpose to avoid overflowing my point, I will not present the whole of Ivano\u00a0Dal\u00a0Prete\u2019s article. To summarise, he looked for other scientific books of the time, both in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vernacular\" title=\"Vernacular\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">vernacular<\/a> and Latin, dedicated for some popularisation as well as addressed to scholars. He found several books indicating the antiquity of the Earth, some emanating from seniors in the hierarchy of the Catholic Church. This idea is presented as valid at least since the beginning of the 13<sup>th<\/sup> century, when Aristotle\u2019s teaching is gaining European universities.<\/p>\n<p>However, you can easily understand that the authors of the Enlightenment considered the biblical vision of a young world being dominant, as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nicholas_Eymerich\" title=\"Nicholas\u00a0Eymerich\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Nicholas\u00a0Eymerich<\/a>\u2019s (circa 1320 \u2013 1399) <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directorium_Inquisitorum\" title=\"Directorium Inquisitorum\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><em>Directorium Inquisitorum<\/em><\/a> classifies the eternity of the world as a heresy<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_23');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_23');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_23\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">23<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_23\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Nicolau\u00a0Aymerich, 1376. <em>Directorium Inquisitorium<\/em>. Text in Latin. This book has been completed (its size did more than doubled) by Francisco\u00a0Pe\u00f1a in 1578.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_23').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_23', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Thus, despite it appears that this last idea was quite widespread, there were clearly strong and even violent oppositions against it. We will see below other examples of this kind of opposition, but first it is necessary to clarify what was the position of the Church.<\/p>\n<h3>Can the Bible be questioned?<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 352px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Augustine_at_the_school_of_taghaste.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c7\/Augustine_at_the_school_of_taghaste.jpg\" width=\"352\" height=\"457\" alt=\"Augustine at the school of Thagaste\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Augustine at the school of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thagaste\" title=\"Thagaste\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Thagaste<\/a><\/em> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benozzo_Gozzoli\" title=\"Benozzo\u00a0Gozzoli\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Benozzo\u00a0Gozzoli<\/a>, portrait realized after his death\u2013public domain painting via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Augustine_at_the_school_of_taghaste.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>It is certain that the Church disapproves the idea that the World was not created by God. As we just seen it, at the end of Middle Ages, it appeared to condemn the idea that World may be eternal. Beyond this, it was not really interested in the exact way things have happened.<\/p>\n<h4>What does the Bible say about science?<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 925px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gutenberg_Bible.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b0\/Gutenberg_Bible.jpg\" width=\"925\" height=\"625\" alt=\"Gutenberg Bible\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gutenberg Bible\u2013image under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.fr\" title=\"CC\u00a0BY-SA\u00a03.0\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">CC\u00a0BY-SA\u00a03.0<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gnu.org\/licenses\/fdl\" title=\"GFDL\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">GFDL<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:Raul654\" title=\"Raul654\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Raul654<\/a> via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gutenberg_Bible.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In any case, the Bible does not say much about subjects of science (understood in its present meaning), save for History. On the latter subject, the Church did not allow anyone to question the biblical story. However, concerning the movement of the Earth in the Solar System, one can find some passages addressing the subject. They are in the Old\u00a0Testament, starting with Joshua\u00a010:12-13. By the way, in this article I use the translation from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/King_James_Version\" title=\"King\u00a0James\u00a0Version\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">King\u00a0James\u00a0Version<\/a>:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>\u2018Then spake Joshua to the Lord in the day when the Lord delivered up the Amorites before the children of Israel, and he said in the sight of Israel, Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon. And the Sun stood still, and the Moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher? So the Sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day.\u2019<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Undeniably, this passage claims that the apparent movements of the Sun and the Moon have been suspended. Anyway, in the end it does not imply that it is the Sun that revolves around the Earth or vice versa, as it only mentions observations that could have been done from the Earth.<\/p>\n<p>Some other elements, depending on the adopted translation, may be interpreted as tackling the position of the Earth relatively to others stars. Thus, 1\u00a0Chronicles\u00a016:30 indicates: \u2018[\u2026] the world also shall be stable, that it be not moved.\u2019 Also, Psalm\u00a093:1 states: \u2018[\u2026] the world also is stablished, that it cannot be moved.\u2019 Likewise, Psalm\u00a096:10 declares: \u2018[\u2026] the world also shall be established that it shall not be moved [\u2026]\u2019 Next, Psalm\u00a0104:5 says: \u2018Who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed for ever.\u2019 Finally, Ecclesiastes\u00a01:5 enunciates: \u2018The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he arose.\u2019<\/p>\n<p>In the end, let\u2019s face that these formulations are vague, sometimes even nothing but banalities. Though some stability in the ordering of the Universe is enunciated, none of these elements necessarily imply that the Earth has to stand still at its centre. Not even does it imply that there is actually a centre in the Universe.<\/p>\n<h4>An impossible literalism<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 2300px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/69\/NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg\" width=\"2300\" height=\"2100\" alt=\"Hubble Ultra-Deep Field image\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hubble Ultra-Deep Field image showing some of the most remote galaxies visible with present technology\u2013image from the Nasa not submitted to copyrights via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This was Galileo\u2019s point of view: for him, if God really had meant to tell the organisation of the World, then the Bible would not give so little allusive elements on the subject<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_24');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_24');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_24\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">24<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_24\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Galileo\u2019s letters exposing this point of view have been published and translated into English for instance in: Maurice\u00a0A.\u00a0Finnochiaro, 1989. <em>The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History<\/em>, University of California Press, Berkley. <a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.fr\/books?id=wKCZFJuMCaQC&printsec=frontcover&q=&redir_esc=y&hl=fr#v=onepage&q&f=false\" title=\"The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_24').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_24', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Said with more modern terms, religion and science does not have the same <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology\" title=\"Ontology\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">ontological<\/a> status, especially since, <a href=\"http:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2016\/03\/01\/william-had-a-good-razor\/\" title=\"William had a good razor!\">as I have already indicated<\/a>, there is no positive definition of \u201cGod.\u201d Therefore, religion cannot be used to determine the validity of a scientific fact. It also means that Biblical literalism does not hold.<\/p>\n<p>Moreover, the impossibility of Biblical literalism was theologically established since a long time. Especially because of the question of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parousia\" title=\"Parousia\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">parousia<\/a>. Indeed, the biblical account indicates that Jesus will return to Earth\u2013this is the second coming, called parousia. The moment of the parousia is indicated in Matthew\u00a024:34, Mark\u00a013:30 and Luke\u00a021:32, these gospels having to report Jesus words:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>\u2018Verily I say unto you, This generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled.\u2019<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>This indication is not really precise, the reason being the exact date would be known only from God (Matthew\u00a024:36). Still, it is indicated that parousia was to occur in the generation that follows the sermons of Jesus. This was already a problem at the time of writing of the gospels, which were probably composed between 70\u00a0AD and 90, more or less ten years\u2013that is to say, about a generation after the events<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_25');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_25');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_25\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">25<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_25\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: Raymond\u00a0Edward\u00a0Brown, 1997. <em>An Introduction to the New Testament<\/em>, Doubleday, New York City.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_25').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_25', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Thus, the second epistle of Peter, probably written at the beginning of the second century, indicates that parousia has already taken place but that the sceptics do not know how to see the signs (2\u00a0Peter\u00a03:1-13).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Augustine_of_Hippo\" title=\"Augustine\u00a0of\u00a0Hippo\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Augustine\u00a0of\u00a0Hippo<\/a> (354 \u2013 430) looked into this problem<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_26');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_26');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_26\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">26<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_26\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Aurelius\u00a0Augustinus, 413-426. <em>De Civitate Dei contra paganos<\/em>. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.hs-augsburg.de\/~harsch\/Chronologia\/Lspost05\/Augustinus\/aug_cd00.html\" title=\"De Civitate Dei contra paganos\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by William\u00a0Babcock: Augustine\u00a0of\u00a0Hippo, 2012. <em>The City of God<\/em>, New City Press, New\u00a0York. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ccel.org\/ccel\/schaff\/npnf102\" title=\"Augustine\u2019s City of God\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_26').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_26', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. He noted that 2\u00a0Peter\u00a03:8 says:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>\u2018[\u2026] one day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day.\u2019<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>This lead him to the following reasoning (The City of God, Book 20, chapter 7):<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>\u2018Now the thousand years may be understood in two ways, so far as occurs to me: either because these things happen in the sixth thousand of years or sixth millennium (the latter part of which is now passing) [\u2026] so that, speaking of a part under the name of the whole, he calls the last part of the millennium\u2013the part, that is, which had yet to expire before the end of the world\u2013a thousand years; or he used the thousand years as an equivalent for the whole duration of this world, employing the number of perfection to mark the fullness of time.\u2019<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Then:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>\u2018Besides, if a hundred is sometimes used for totality, as when the Lord said by way of promise to him that left all and followed Him \u201cHe shall receive in this world an hundredfold<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_27');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_27');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_27\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">27<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_27\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Matthew\u00a019:29, Mark\u00a010:30.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_27').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_27', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>;\u201d [\u2026] with how much greater reason is a thousand put for totality since it is the cube, while the other is only the square? And for the same reason we cannot better interpret the words of the psalm, \u201cHe hath been mindful of His covenant for ever, the word which He commanded to a thousand generations<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_28');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_28');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_28\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">28<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_28\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Psalm\u00a0105:8.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_28').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_28', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>,\u201d than by understanding it to mean \u201cto all generations.\u201d\u2019<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>To sum it up in a more modern way, Augustine deduced that God is out of time and therefore we cannot consider the temporal indications to be absolute. As a result, the text cannot be read literally. It was thus clearly established by the middle of the fifth century that the Bible could not be interpreted literally.<\/p>\n<p>Of course, during the Middle Ages thinking was under strong control and some ideas were violently repressed<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_29');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_29');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_29\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">29<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_29\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">On this particular matter, one can refer to: Robert\u00a0I.\u00a0Moore, 2012. <em>The War on Heresy: Faith and Power in Medieval Europe<\/em>, Profile Books, London.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_29').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_29', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, the work of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rabelais\" title=\"Fran\u00e7ois\u00a0Rabelais\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Fran\u00e7ois\u00a0Rabelais<\/a> (1483 or 1494 \u2013 1553), for example, bears testimony of this. Nevertheless, we have seen that there are elements that call into question the presentation made by the encyclopedists concerning the evolution of ideas. On the subjects of science, which forms the particular topic of this article, liberty seemed greater than what is often claimed. To clarify, allow me to go back to the rediscovery of Aristotle in Europe.<\/p>\n<h3>An ambivalent domination<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 235px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Saint_Thomas_Aquinas.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/6c\/Saint_Thomas_Aquinas.jpg\" width=\"235\" height=\"325\" alt=\"Thomas\u00a0Aquinas\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Posthumous portrait of Thomas\u00a0Aquinas by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fra_Angelico\" title=\"Fra\u00a0Angelico\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Fra\u00a0Angelico<\/a>\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Saint_Thomas_Aquinas.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>For Aristotle\u2019s teaching had been <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ontology.co\/corpus-aristotelicum.htm\" title=\"The Rediscovery of the Corpus Aristotelicum\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">partly forgotten in Europe<\/a>. It was preserved mainly in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byzantium\" title=\"Byzantium\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Byzantium<\/a> and then in the Muslim world. During the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century\" title=\"Renaissance of the 12th century\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Renaissance of the twelfth century<\/a> (a period of renewal of the cultural world in the Europe of the Middle Ages), the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/School_of_Chartres\" title=\"The School of Chartres\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">School of Chartres<\/a> will rediscover the Greek philosopher<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_30');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_30');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_30\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">30<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_30\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: Etienne\u00a0Gilson, 1990. <em>The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (Gifford Lectures 1933-35)<\/em>, University of Notre\u00a0Dame Press, Notre\u00a0Dame, Indiana, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_30').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_30', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, then <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Albertus_Magnus\" title=\"Albertus\u00a0Magnus\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Albrecht\u00a0von\u00a0Bollst\u00e4dt<\/a>, also known as Albert\u00a0the\u00a0Great, (circa 1200 \u2013 1280) translated his writings from Greek to Latin and commented on them, among other works. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thomas_Aquinas\" title=\"Thomas\u00a0Aquinas\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Thomas\u00a0Aquinas<\/a> (1224 or 1225 \u2013 1274) will rely on this work to build his own. Scholasticism\u2013in which Aristotle\u2019s philosophical system, with some modifications, is an essential basis\u2013is then clearly established, even if it will undergo evolutions over time. It will then spread in universities and academies.<\/p>\n<p>From then on, scholasticism will be the main thinking system of Christendom. Because of its central position in this philosophy, the Aristotelian system is therefore the dominant system of the time.<\/p>\n<p>However, there were some ambivalence in this domination. Thus, during his lifetime, Thomas\u00a0Aquinas was at the heart of academic quarrels, especially against the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mendicant_orders\" title=\"Mendicant orders\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Mendicant orders<\/a> such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Order_of_Friars_Minor\" title=\"Order of Friars Minor\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Franciscans<\/a>, and also against some masters of the arts (that is to say, teachers)<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_31');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_31');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_31\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">31<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_31\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: Eleonore\u00a0Stump, 2003. <em>Aquinas<\/em>, Routledege, Abington-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, United\u00a0Kingdom.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_31').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_31', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Moreover, as early as 1270 and 1277, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%89tienne_Tempier\" title=\"\u00c9tienne Tempier\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">\u00c9tienne\u00a0Tempier<\/a> (1210 \u2013 1279), then bishop of Paris, condemned 219 propositions, among which about fifteen were part of the Aristotelian thought<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_32');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_32');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_32\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">32<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_32\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Stephani\u00a0Tempier, 1270 then 1277. <em>Codempnationes<\/em>, Paris. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/enfrancaissurantimodernism.blogspot.fr\/2012\/01\/index-in-stephani-tempier.html\" title=\"Codempnationes\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_32').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_32', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>\u2013however, this condemnation was more about the formulations of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Averroes\" title=\"Averroes\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Averroes<\/a> (1126 \u2013 1198) than on those of Thomas\u00a0Aquinas. Other condemnations will occur, but also defences, Thomas\u00a0Aquinas being canonized in 1323 by Pope <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pope_John_XXII\" title=\"John\u00a0XXII\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">John\u00a0XXII<\/a> (Jacques\u00a0Du\u00e8ze also known as John\u00a0XXII, 1244 \u2013 1334).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, throughout the second half of the Middle Ages, though the Aristotelian system is dominant, it is questioned, criticised, amended, and modified. Anyway, the authors of these criticisms were not worried by the religious authorities. Therefore, it was far from a system whose questioning was prohibited.<\/p>\n<p>However, the vision of the Enlightenment was not entirely erroneous. Especially since a major turning point in Christian thought will change everything: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reformation\" title=\"Reformation\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Reformation<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3>Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 3572px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:MartinLuther-workshopCranachElder.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b0\/MartinLuther-workshopCranachElder.jpg\" width=\"3572\" height=\"2551\" alt=\"Martin\u00a0Luther\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Martin\u00a0Luther in 1528 by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder\" title=\"Lucas\u00a0Cranach\u00a0the\u00a0Elder\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Lucas\u00a0Cranach\u00a0the\u00a0Elder<\/a>\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:MartinLuther-workshopCranachElder.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>I guess you are starting to understand that the change of philosophical system, in this case rather the emancipation of science from philosophy, is more the result of a long maturation than a sudden change in some people\u2019s way of thinking. As a result, I think you will be quite easily convinced that, likewise, the appearance of Protestantism is the result of a somewhat long term evolution. Therefore, summarising it briefly is a challenge, which I must try to address anyway\u2013and, to my sorrow, probably not entirely achieve<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_33');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_33');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_33\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">33<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_33\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">For a more complete presentation of the different currents that led to the Protestant Reformation, one can consult: Euan\u00a0Cameron, 2012. <em>The European Reformation<\/em>, second edition, Oxford University Press.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_33').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_33', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<h4>Questioning the practices of the Church<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 560px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Fratelli_D%27Alessandri_-_n._060_-_Roma_-_Ingresso_al_Vaticano_con_la_guardia_degli_Svizzeri.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/4b\/Fratelli_D%27Alessandri_-_n._060_-_Roma_-_Ingresso_al_Vaticano_con_la_guardia_degli_Svizzeri.jpg\" width=\"560\" height=\"750\" alt=\"Entrance of the Vatican.\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Entrance of the Vatican\u2013public domain picture by D\u2019Alessandri brothers via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Fratelli_D%27Alessandri_-_n._060_-_Roma_-_Ingresso_al_Vaticano_con_la_guardia_degli_Svizzeri.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Though the use of mobile printing characters, facilitating the distribution of books and therefore their access, played an important role, the event that can be considered to catalysed in 1517 the formation of the movement of Reformation is the publication by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Martin_Luther\" title=\"Martin\u00a0Luther\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Martin\u00a0Luther<\/a> (1483 \u2013 1546), placarding it on the front of his church, of a text often referred to as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ninety-five_Theses\" title=\"Ninety-five Theses\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Ninety-five Theses<\/a><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_34');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_34');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_34\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">34<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_34\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Martinus\u00a0Luther, 1517. <em>Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum<\/em>, Wittemberg, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in Latin. <a href=\"https:\/\/la.wikisource.org\/wiki\/Disputatio_pro_declaratione_virtutis_indulgentiarum\" title=\"Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English version can be found in: Timothy\u00a0J.\u00a0Wengert, 2015. <em>Martin\u00a0Luther\u2019s Ninety-Five Theses: With Introduction, Commentary, and Study guide<\/em>, Fortress Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikisource.org\/wiki\/Works_of_Martin_Luther,_with_introductions_and_notes,_Volume_1\/Disputation_on_Indulgences#Ninety-five_Theses\" title=\"Disputation on Indulgences\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_34').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_34', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<p>Again, this publication is the result of a long term process, but it is the moment when it becomes truly apparent. It will highlight questions about the practices of the Church. Martin\u00a0Luther first attacked indulgences, that is to say the practice of buying forgiveness by means of more or less generous donations to the Church. However, the questioning ultimately concerned a large part of the practices of the Catholic Church.<\/p>\n<p>I guess it is quite well-known that at the time Catholic church was an essential political and financial power in Europe, as well as the moral and religious reference<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_35');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_35');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_35\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">35<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_35\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">On this subject, one can consult for instance: R.\u00a0Po-chia\u00a0Hsia (editor), 2008. \u201cReform and Expansion 1500\u20131660,\u201d volume six of <em>The Cambridge History of Christianity<\/em>, Cambridge University Press.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_35').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_35', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. However, the spreading of printing work lead a growing number to question whether such a power was both legitimate and consistent with the words of Jesus. Indeed, he is supposed to have expelled merchants from the Temple<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_36');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_36');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_36\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">36<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_36\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Matthew\u00a021:12-17, Mark\u00a011:15-19, Luke\u00a019:45-48, and John\u00a02:13-16.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_36').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_36', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> and his magisterial is presented as purely spiritual rather than secular.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, the Protestant Reformation movement intended to return to practices closer with the origin of Christianity. However, one should notice that at the time, actually even now, it was difficult to really evaluate what the practices of the first Christians were. Especially, they gathered in communities with various practices, not to say opposite<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_37');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_37');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_37\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">37<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_37\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">On this subject, one can consult: Margaret\u00a0M.\u00a0Mitchell and Frances\u00a0M.\u00a0Young (editors), 2006. \u201cOrigins to Constantine,\u201d volume one of <em>The Cambridge History of Christianity<\/em>, Cambridge University Press.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_37').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_37', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. In fact, the Protestant Reformation is truly part of the questioning of its time, in relation to what was cultural life then.<\/p>\n<p>At least in the period of its appearance, it seems that Protestant movements were opposed to the Copernican system (the starting point of this article). Thus, if Martin\u00a0Luther did not express himself very much on the subject, there is a very clear condemnation of the Heliocentric system in his <em>Table Talk<\/em><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_38');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_38');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_38\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">38<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_38\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Martin\u00a0Luther, 1566. <em>Tischreden<\/em>, edited by Johannes\u00a0Mathesus, J.\u00a0Aurifaber, V.\u00a0Dietrich, Ernst\u00a0Kroker, et al., Eisleben, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in Latin. A translation in English by William\u00a0Hazlitt: Martin\u00a0Luther, 2005. <em>The Table Talk of Martin\u00a0Luther<\/em>, Dover Publications Inc, Mineola, New\u00a0York. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ccel.org\/ccel\/luther\/tabletalk.html\" title=\"Table Talk\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. I am referring to entry 4638.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_38').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_38', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. It also seems that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Calvin\" title=\"John\u00a0Calvin\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">John\u00a0Calvin<\/a> (1509 \u2013 1564), another founder of a Protestant movement, was opposed to it<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_39');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_39');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_39\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">39<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_39\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">If you know some French, you can consult: Richard\u00a0Stauffer, 1971. \u201cCalvin et Copernic,\u201d <em>Revue de l\u2019histoire des religions<\/em>, 179 (1), pp.\u00a031 \u2013 40. Text in French. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.persee.fr\/doc\/rhr_0035-1423_1971_num_179_1_9663\" title=\"Calvin et Copernic\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_39').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_39', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<h4>The reaction of the Church<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 4000px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Model_Vatican_2.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2f\/Model_Vatican_2.jpg\" width=\"4000\" height=\"1771\" alt=\"Model of Saint Peter's Basilica and Vatican City\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Model of Saint\u00a0Peter's Basilica and Vatican\u00a0City in Vatican Museums, Rome\u2013public domain picture by <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:Karelj\" title=\"Karelj\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Karelj<\/a> via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Model_Vatican_2.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Still, a reformation desire, at first from within, was growing. This will was confronted to an opposition that won several victories, while the reformation movement became more radical. Thus, Martin\u00a0Luther will be excommunicated in 1521 by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pope_Leo_X\" title=\"Pope Leo\u00a0X\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pope Leo\u00a0X<\/a> (Giovanni\u00a0di\u00a0Lorenzo\u00a0de\u00a0Medici also known as Leo\u00a0X, 1474 \u2013 1521)<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_40');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_40');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_40\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">40<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_40\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Leo\u00a0X, 1521. <em>Decet Romanum Pontificem<\/em>, Vatican. Text in Latin. <a href=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/33\/Decet_Romanum_Pontificam.jpg\" title=\"Decet Romanum Pontificem\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line via Wikimedia<\/a>. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.papalencyclicals.net\/Leo10\/l10decet.htm\" title=\"Decet Romanum Pontificem\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">An English translation is available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_40').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_40', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, as he showed an increasingly firm opposition to the papal power.<\/p>\n<p>This will not end these oppositions and, as Martin\u00a0Luther wanted, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pope_Paul_III\" title=\"Pope Paul\u00a0III\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pope Paul\u00a0III<\/a> (Alessandro\u00a0Farnese also known as Paul\u00a0III, 1468 \u2013 1549) will convene in 1542 a council in the Italian city of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trento\" title=\"Trento\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Trento<\/a><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_41');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_41');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_41\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">41<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_41\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">For details on this council, one can refer to: John\u00a0W.\u00a0O\u2019Malley, 2013. <em>Trent: What Happened at the Council<\/em>, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_41').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_41', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. This council began in 1545 and lasted 18 years, ending in 1563. If at the time some still had some hope of reforming from the interior, this hope was deceived. Instead, the Council of Trent was rather the occasion to organised what will be called later the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Counter-Reformation\" title=\"Counter-Reformation\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Counter-Reformation<\/a>, which opposes Protestantism.<\/p>\n<h3>Taking back control of universities<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 750px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/7b\/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg\" width=\"750\" height=\"1170\" alt=\"Frontispiece of the Index\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Frontispiece of the Index in 1564\u2013image of the public domain via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>To stop the contamination by the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church will try to strongly take over the teaching of universities\u2013according to the wordings of the time, the faculties of the arts, as opposed to the faculty of theology\u2013considered to be too much independent. After all, this reform was the product of the questioning of the teachings of the Church. A list of books whose reading is forbidden to Christians, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum\" title=\"Index Librorum Prohibitorum\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><em>Index librorum prohibitorum<\/em><\/a><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_42');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_42');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_42\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">42<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_42\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Rom\u00e6 Inquisitionis, 1559. <em>Index Auctorum et librorum prohibitorum<\/em>, Rom\u00e6 ex officina. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.aloha.net\/~mikesch\/ILP-1559.htm\" title=\"Index librorum prohibitorum\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_42').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_42', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> (often simply referred to as the \u201cIndex\u201d), has been created. Looking closely at it, what reaffirmed Counter-Reformation is the authority of the Church.<\/p>\n<p>This desire to strengthen the Pope\u2019s authority arise almost as early as the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. For instance, several of Aristotle\u2019s positions concerning the mortality of soul will be condemned by Leo\u00a0X as soon as 1513<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_43');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_43');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_43\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">43<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_43\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Leo\u00a0X, 1513. <em>Apostolici Regiminis<\/em>, papal bull, Vatican. Text en Latin.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_43').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_43', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<p>However, to return to the ambivalence concerning Aristotle\u2019s thought, let us note that the Council of Trent will reaffirm that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transubstantiation\" title=\"Transubstantiation\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">transubstantiation<\/a> during <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eucharist\" title=\"Eucharist\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Eucharist<\/a> is part of dogma. Transubstantiation was formalised by Thomas\u00a0Aquinas based on Aristotle\u2019s metaphysics<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_44');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_44');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_44\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">44<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_44\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">If you know some French, you can consult: Yves\u00a0Gingras, 2010. \u201cL\u2019Atomisme contre la transsubstantiation,\u201d <em>La\u00a0Recherche<\/em> n\u00b0\u202f446, pp. 92 \u2013 94.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_44').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_44', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. According to Aristotle, matter is composed of first qualities (the substance itself) and second qualities (sensations). According to transubstantiation, first qualities of the sacramental bread and wine are actually converted into the body and blood of Christ, while second qualities, that is to say both taste and consistency, are not changed.<\/p>\n<p>This particular element of dogma became a point of opposition between the Catholic Church and the Reformed churches. Above all, note that despite a partial condemnation, the Aristotelian system is used to reaffirm Catholic dogma.<\/p>\n<p>It seems that Vatican meddled with scientific subjects in reaction with the Protestant Reformation. In facts, instigators of Protestant Reformation and those of Counter-Reformation mutually provoked a hardening of positions on the other side.<\/p>\n<p>At this point, Copernicus\u2019 writings were not brought to the Index: after all, what was important for papacy at this time was to fight against Protestantism. It is Galileo\u2019s work, more than half a century later, that lead the congregation of the Index to take some new interest in Copernicus\u2019 publications<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_45');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_45');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_45\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">45<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_45\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Concerning the ins and outs of Galileo affair, one can refer to: Emerson\u00a0Thomas\u00a0McMullen, 2003. \u201cGalileo\u2019s condemnation: the real and complex story,\u201d in <em>Georgia Journal of Science<\/em>, volume 61, number 2, pp. 90 \u2013 106.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_45').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_45', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<h3>Galileo affair<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 398px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Saint_Robert_Bellarmine.png?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/20\/Saint_Robert_Bellarmine.png\" width=\"398\" height=\"500\" alt=\"Robert\u00a0Bellarmin\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Anonymous portrait of Robert\u00a0Bellarmin\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Saint_Robert_Bellarmine.png?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Indeed, Dominican brother <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tommaso_Caccini\" title=\"Tommaso\u00a0Caccini\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Tommaso\u00a0Caccini<\/a> (1574 \u2013 1648) delivered a sermon against mathematicians in December 1614, denouncing in particular Galileo\u2019s support for Copernican theory. In response, Galileo\u2019s supporters spread a letter from Galileo written a year earlier defending the position of accommodation (which I have mentioned earlier): it asserts that the Bible is compatible with the heliocentric model and, as cosmology does not concern the salvation of souls, in this field science is independent of theology. As a consequence, biblical studies have to adapt their interpretations to the findings of scholars.<\/p>\n<h4>Some fragile compromise<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 450px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Galilee.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/48\/Galilee.jpg\" width=\"450\" height=\"651\" alt=\"Galileo\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Portrait of Galileo by Ottavio\u00a0Leoni\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Galilee.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Thus, not only does Galileo meddle with theology, he also asserted that on some subject the Church cannot be considered as the authority. If you have followed me, you should realise that this position is contrary to the tendency initiated with the Council of Trent. Then, for ecclesiastic authorities, it was important to put Galileo back to his place. Thus, Caccini denounced Galileo to the Inquisition on March 20<sup>th<\/sup>, 1615.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, this first denunciation was not made on scientific basis, but for political reasons.<\/p>\n<p>At first, Galileo submitted and a compromise had been set up in 1616: Galileo will not be condemned, while Copernicus\u2019 writings in their original version will be put on the Index. However, as they were useful for astronomical computation, a version modified accordingly to Ossiander\u2019s warning will be authorised, which state this system as nothing but a computational hypothesis. Therefore, it is presented as allowing more precise calculations than Ptolemy\u2019s, but not reflecting reality. This act of submission reaffirmed the primacy of theologian.<\/p>\n<p>Around 1624, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pope_Urban_VIII\" title=\"Pope Urban\u00a0VIII\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pope Urban\u00a0VIII<\/a> (Maffeo\u00a0Barberini also known as Urban VIII, 1568 \u2013 1644) enjoined Galileo to produce a book presenting equitably geocentric and heliocentric systems. The result, the <em>Dialogue on the two chief world systems<\/em>, was published in 1632<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_46');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_46');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_46\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">46<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_46\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Galileo\u00a0Galilei, 1632. <em>Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo<\/em>, Batista\u00a0Landini, Florence. Text in Italian. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.liberliber.it\/mediateca\/libri\/g\/galilei\/dialogo_sopra\/pdf\/dialog_p.pdf\" title=\"Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by Stillman\u00a0Drake: Galileo\u00a0Galilei, 1953. <em>Dialogue concerning the two chief world systems\u2013Ptolemaic & Copernican<\/em>, second edition, University of California Press. <a href=\"http:\/\/archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de\/cgi-bin\/toc\/toc.cgi?step=thumb&dir=galil_syste_065_en_1661\" title=\"Dialogue concerning two world systems\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_46').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_46', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. By reading this book, Copernicus\u2019 system clearly appears to be more rightful than Ptolemy\u2019s. However, at the time Galileo\u2019s political supports was either dead or in weakened. As a result, the compromise of 1616 will be considered violated, Galileo will be condemned in 1633 to abjure heliocentric system and his works, as well as those of Copernicus, including in their modified versions, will be added to the Index.<\/p>\n<h4>Was it an act of defiance?<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 600px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anarchy-symbol.svg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/7a\/Anarchy-symbol.svg\" width=\"600\" height=\"600\" alt=\"Anarchy symbol\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Anarchy symbol; by the way, the author of this article may be throwing some subtle troll\u2013public domain image by Linuxerist, <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:Froztbyte\" title=\"Froztbyte\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Froztbyte<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:Heinz-Josef_L%C3%BCcking\" title=\"Arcy\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Arcy<\/a> via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anarchy-symbol.svg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Please allow me to open some parenthesis. It is sometimes said that Galileo had shown arrogance, even that he defied papal power. Admittedly, it seems that Galileo had an important ego and that he tried to press his advantage when publishing the <em>Dialogue on the two chief world systems<\/em>, among other blunders. However, it is hardly conceivable that he knowingly took the risk of incurring the pope\u2019s wrath.<\/p>\n<p>Still, at that time he had gathered enough evidences to conclude that Ptolemy\u2019s system was invalid. As a result, a balanced presentation could not present the two systems as equally likely, it would have been favouritism towards Ptolemy. But obviously the Church, while trying to reaffirm its authority, will present as some arrogance to affirm a position it disapproves. For instance, this is what it told previously about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Giordano_Bruno\" title=\"Giordano\u00a0Bruno\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Giordano\u00a0Bruno<\/a> (1548 \u2013 1600), which, <a href=\"http:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2015\/09\/15\/everything-is-relative-my-dear-bruno\/\" title=\"Everything is relative, my dear Bruno!\">as I have already stated<\/a>, was condemned for his theological positions rather than his cosmological views.<\/p>\n<h4>The consequences of Galileo\u2019s condemnation<\/h4>\n<figure style=\"width: 817px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/73\/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg\" width=\"817\" height=\"1000\" alt=\"Ren\u00e9\u00a0Descartes\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ren\u00e9\u00a0Descartes\u2019 portrait by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frans_Hals\" rel=\"noopener\" title=\"Frans\u00a0Hals\" target=\"_blank\">Frans\u00a0Hals<\/a>\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>After Galileo\u2019s trial, at first the Church seemed to triumph: once again the scientist had to submit, theological authority seemed to prevail. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes\" title=\"Ren\u00e9\u00a0Descartes\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Ren\u00e9\u00a0Descartes<\/a> (1596 \u2013 1650) even renounced to publish his treatise entitled <em>The World<\/em><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_47');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_47');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_47\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">47<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_47\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: Desmond\u00a0Clarke, 2006. <em>Descartes: A Biography<\/em>, Cambridge University Press.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_47').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_47', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, completed in 1633 and which was published posthumously<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_48');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_48');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_48\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">48<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_48\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ren\u00e9\u00a0Descartes, 1664. <em>Trait\u00e9 du monde et de la lumi\u00e8re<\/em>. Text in French. A bilingual (French and English) edition with a translation by Michael\u00a0Sean\u00a0Mahoney: Ren\u00e9\u00a0Descartes, 1979. <em>Le Monde, ou Trait\u00e9 de la lumi\u00e8re<\/em>, Abaris\u00a0Book, New-York. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.princeton.edu\/~hos\/mike\/texts\/descartes\/world\/worldfr.htm\" title=\"The World\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_48').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_48', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. This treatise presents a physical theory favourable to the heliocentric system.<\/p>\n<p>However, after being condemned, Galileo published a last book which clearly contradicted Aristotelian physics<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_49');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_49');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_49\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">49<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_49\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Galileo\u00a0Galilei, 1638. <em>Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche Intorno a Due Nuove Scienze<\/em>, Leyde, Holland. Text in Italian. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.liberliber.it\/mediateca\/libri\/g\/galilei\/discorsi_e_dimostrazioni\/pdf\/discor_p.pdf\" title=\"Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche Intorno a Due Nuove Scienze\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by Stillman\u00a0Drake: Galileo\u00a0Galilei, 1974. <em>Two New Sciences<\/em>, University of Wisconsin Press. <a href=\"http:\/\/galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu\/tns_draft\/index.html\" title=\"Two New Sciences\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_49').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_49', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Moreover, rejection of Aristotle\u2019s physics will quite soon become the norm. Especially with Newton\u2019s works, while with the Enlightenment the intellectual world will definitively get rid of scholastic. After this seemingly triumph, quite soon the Church will not be able to impose its views to scientists.<\/p>\n<p>Copernicus\u2019 and Galileo\u2019s books were removed from the Index in 1757 and 1835<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_50');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_50');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_50\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">50<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_50\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">If you know some French, you can refer to: Pierre-No\u00ebl\u00a0Mayaud, 1997. <em>La Condamnation des livres coperniciens et sa r\u00e9vocation \u00e0 la lumi\u00e8re de documents in\u00e9dits des Congr\u00e9gations de l\u2019Index et de l\u2019Inquisition<\/em>, Universit\u00e9 pontificale gr\u00e9gorienne. <a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.fr\/books?id=yE2G1xjWkG8C&printsec=frontcover&hl=fr#v=onepage&q&f=false\" title=\"La Condamnation des livres coperniciens et sa r\u00e9vocation \u00e0 la lumi\u00e8re de documents in\u00e9dits des Congr\u00e9gations de l\u2019Index et de l\u2019Inquisition\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Partially available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_50').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_50', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. In 1981, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pope_John_Paul_II\" title=\"Pope John\u00a0Paul\u00a0II\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Pope John\u00a0Paul\u00a0II<\/a> (Karol\u00a0J\u00f3zef\u00a0Wojty\u0142a also known as John\u00a0Paul\u00a0II, 1920 \u2013 2005) created a special commission to review 1633 condemnation<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_51');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_51');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_51\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">51<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_51\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: Michael\u00a0Segre, 1999. \u201cGalileo: A \u2018rehabilitation\u2019 that has never taken place,\u201d <em>Endeavour<\/em>, 23 (1), pp.\u00a020\u201323. Doi: <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0160-9327(99)01185-0\" title=\"Galileo: A \u201crehabilitation\u201d that has never taken place\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/s0160-9327(99)01185-0<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_51').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_51', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. In 1992, he asserted that this condemnation was a mistake, even declaring that Galileo had turned out to be a better theologian than theologians of the times.<\/p>\n<p>Then, the Catholic Church will react slowly, but became more ambiguous in its desire to impose its views in scientific matters. This even by leaving some points unresolved. For example, it would prefer not to directly condemn <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles_Darwin\" title=\"Charles\u00a0Darwin\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Charles\u00a0Darwin<\/a><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_52');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_52');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_52\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">52<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_52\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Charles\u00a0Darwin, 1859. <em>On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life<\/em>, John\u00a0Murray, London. <a href=\"http:\/\/publicliterature.org\/books\/origin_of_species\/1\" title=\"The Origins of Species\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_52').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_52', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> (1809 \u2013 1882), but still put on the Index works from other authors who supported evolution: despite it was repugnant to the idea of evolution of the species, not to attack Darwin directly is a way to avoid creating a new case similar to Galileo\u2019s<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_53');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_53');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_53\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">53<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_53\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Once again, forgive my being French, but on this subject you can consult: Yves\u00a0Gingras, 2016. <em>L\u2019impossible dialogue<\/em>, PUF, Paris. Text in French.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_53').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_53', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Therefore, although reluctant to the idea of evolution, it abandoned the frontal opposition to Reformed churches. However, John\u00a0Paul\u00a0II still indicated in 1996 that evolution is more than a hypothesis.<\/p>\n<p>I hope these developments have convinced you that, contrary to what authors of the Enlightenment have written, there has not been a sudden shift from obscurantism to reason, but a series of developments and contradictions. However, we must not blame them too much: even if their strong convictions has lead them to some mistakes, we must remember that historical science was not really developed in their time. They were nevertheless at the origin of many scientific and cultural progress. Simply, we should analyse their points of view in the light of our current knowledge.<\/p>\n<h3>Science is not only occidental<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 218px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Al_biruni_28-02-2010.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/42\/Al_biruni_28-02-2010.jpg\" width=\"218\" height=\"287\" alt=\"Al-B\u012br\u016bn\u012b\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Posthumous portrait of Al-B\u012br\u016bn\u012b\u2013image under <a href=\"http:\/\/artlibre.org\/licence\/lal\/en\/\" title=\"Free\u00a0Art licence\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Free\u00a0Art licence<\/a> via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Al_biruni_28-02-2010.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>It seems to me important to remember that not all scientific developments are made in the Western world. For instance, as I stated earlier, the Arab world has preserved and perpetuated the ancient Greek heritage. Not only did it preserve the Greek sciences, but it also made them evolve, notably by criticizing the occult aspects, such as magic and astrology<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_54');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_54');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_54\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">54<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_54\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: F.\u00a0Jamil\u00a0Ragep and Sally\u00a0P.\u00a0Ragep (editors), 1996. <em>Tradition, Transmission, Transformation. Proceedings of two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma<\/em>, E.\u00a0J.\u00a0Brill, Leiden, New-York, K\u00f6ln.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_54').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_54', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. In this aspect, this is the seed that leads to modern scientific methodologies.<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems that Copernicus has never been in direct contact with the Middle East, it is more than likely that he became acquainted with Arab thinkers during his studies in Italy, notably at the University of Bologna. It is based on ancient texts that he developed a complete astronomical system, which cannot be summed up as just a heliocentric system<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_55');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_55');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_55\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">55<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_55\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See for instance: Thomas\u00a0Samuel\u00a0Kuhn, 1957. <em>The Copernican Revolution<\/em>, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_55').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_55', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, not only did Middle\u00a0East preserve Greek philosophy, it also prolonged it. On the few topics covered in this article, I have cited sources from Greek and Roman antiquity, India, the Arab world, and the Western world. A certain kind of ethnocentrism led some to believe that science is primarily a creation of the Western world. Interestingly, proponents of a rigorous Islam, for instance, join this idea and talk about a so called Western science<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_56');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_56');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_56\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">56<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_56\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">This is the last reference in French which is not translated in English I give, but on this touchy subject, the following book gives elements way better than I can do: Faouzia\u00a0Charfi, 2013. <em>La Science voil\u00e9e<\/em>, Odile\u00a0Jacob, Paris. Text in French.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_56').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_56', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<p>However, history of science and more generally history of ideas on the contrary show rather regular exchanges between the different cultural areas. For instance, mobile printing characters, that I have mentioned above and that led to a cultural growth, where invented in China. Such exchanges have existed since a long time: the wheel, already<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_57');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_57');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_57\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">57<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_57\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Readers interested on history of wheel, as well as origins of Indo-European languages can refer to: David\u00a0W.\u00a0Anthony, 2007. <em>The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World<\/em>, Princeton University Press, New\u00a0Jersey, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_57').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_57', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>\u00a0\u2026<\/p>\n<h3>A more modern vision<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 1522px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gaston_Bachelard_1965.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/cb\/Gaston_Bachelard_1965.jpg\" width=\"1522\" height=\"2041\" alt=\"Gaston\u00a0Bachelard\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gaston\u00a0Bachelard by an unknown photographer\u2013image under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/nl\/deed.en\" title=\"Creative\u00a0Commons BY-SA\u00a03.0\u00a0NL\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Creative\u00a0Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Netherlands licence<\/a> via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gaston_Bachelard_1965.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>More recently, during the twentieth century, recognising that these revolutions actually inherits from works that preceded them, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epistemology\" title=\"Epistemology\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">epistemology<\/a> and philosophy of science reconsidered the idea of scientific revolution. For instance, according to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gaston_Bachelard\" title=\"Gaston\u00a0Bachelard\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Gaston\u00a0Bachelard<\/a> (1884 \u2013 1962), strongly influenced by psychoanalysis, history of science is punctuated by a series of breaks<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_58');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_58');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_58\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">58<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_58\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Gaston\u00a0Bachelard, 1938. <em>La Formation de l\u2019esprit scientifique<\/em>, Vrin, Paris. Text in French. <a href=\"http:\/\/classiques.uqac.ca\/classiques\/bachelard_gaston\/formation_esprit_scientifique\/formation_esprit.pdf\" title=\"La Formation de l\u2019esprit scientifique\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by M.\u00a0McAllester\u00a0Jones: Gaston\u00a0Bachelard, 2002. <em>The Formation of the Scientific Mind<\/em>, Clinamen, Bolton, Grand\u00a0Manchester, United\u00a0Kingdom.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_58').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_58', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. These breaks make it possible to go beyond what he called \u201cepistemological obstacles,\u201d that is to say when the old theories fail to explain an observed phenomenon. Scientific revolutions would therefore be the engine of progress for humanity.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast, for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thomas_Kuhn\" title=\"Thomas\u00a0Kuhn\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Thomas\u00a0Samuel\u00a0Kuhn<\/a> (1922 \u2013 1996)<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_59');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_59');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_59\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">59<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_59\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Thomas\u00a0Samuel\u00a0Kuhn, 1962. <em>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions<\/em>, University of Chicago Press.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_59').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_59', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, a scientific revolution is not the remodelling of the concepts and axioms in use. According to him, scientific revolutions must also be considered as a social phenomenon. For him, usual practices of science consist in using and specifying the paradigms in use. He thus introduces in epistemology the notion of paradigm, designating a set of proven observations and an explanatory system of this set of observations, as well as a methodology for their study. Then, a scientific revolution would be a moment of crisis, when one or more paradigms are challenged.<\/p>\n<p>However, Thomas\u00a0Kuhn\u2019s positions tend strongly to relativism. Also, history of natural sciences, for instance, shows that several competing paradigms can coexist at the same time and over a relatively long period, without one taking over the others. This led to question these positions.<\/p>\n<h2>Is it relevant to talk about revolution?<\/h2>\n<figure style=\"width: 1574px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Francois_Rabelais_-_Portrait.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/8d\/Francois_Rabelais_-_Portrait.jpg\" width=\"1574\" height=\"1947\" alt=\"Fran\u00e7ois\u00a0Rabelais\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Posthumous portrait of Fran\u00e7ois\u00a0Rabelais\u2013image of the public domain via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Francois_Rabelais_-_Portrait.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>There is indeed in history of science several controversies, that is to say moments when some theories compete each other. In such cases, proponents of each theory give both arguments in favour of their point of view and against the opposing points of view. The evaluation of these arguments and the systematic search for errors lead then to invalidate certain theories\u2013even, sometimes, all theories in competition.<\/p>\n<p>Also, there are many moments of rupture, when certain elements of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_consensus\" title=\"Scientific consensus\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">scientific consensus<\/a> are questioned, new fields are explored or new methodologies are set. However, the study of these ruptures shows that they are generally the result of a maturation of pre-existing ideas and questions.<\/p>\n<h3>The fragilities of the concept<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 780px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/39\/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg\" width=\"780\" height=\"1074\" alt=\"Isaac\u00a0Newton\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Isaac\u00a0Newton\u2019s portrait by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Godfrey_Kneller\" title=\"Godfrey\u00a0Kneller\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Godfrey\u00a0Kneller<\/a>\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>But it seems to me that the idea of scientific revolution is based on an aristocratic vision of science, which would progress through several breakthroughs made by few individuals who would see further than the others. <a href=\"http:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2015\/09\/15\/everything-is-relative-my-dear-bruno\/\" title=\"Everything is relative, my dear Bruno\u202f!\">As I have already stated<\/a>, not only does this point of view seem to me wrong, but also problematic.<\/p>\n<p>Firstly, wrong because it does not fit with the practices I have seen in my personal experience: scientific work is a collective work, that even cannot really be made in isolation. Indeed, the first step in such a work is to be mistaken, then collectively look for errors. Also, it is through a collective work that a given contribution can be made objective\u2013understood in the sense \u201cwhich resist to the change of point of view.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Secondly, problematic because the idea that contributions of a few would be intrinsically superior to any others leads to have too much deference for them. However, scientific practice consists not so much  in doubt, but rather in systematic search for errors. To treat with too much deference a given contribution on the basis that the understanding of those who produced it is deemed to be superior to that of any other can lead to no longer carry out this search for errors. Therefore, it would prevent to advance, even to rely on invalid elements.<\/p>\n<p>Moreover, to consider nothing but moments of emergence of possible controversies or ruptures leads to forget that questioning are permanent in the practice of science. Actually, this is central in science: systematic search for errors can only be made through constant questioning. If, indeed, this permanent questioning leads proportionally only rarely to controversies or ruptures, it is precisely because validity of theories is constantly questioned. This is what strongly establish them.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, wrong again because, as we have seen with the examples discussed throughout this article\u2013there are several others, some of them will be discussed later in this blog\u2013, what is presented to be a rupture with previous point of view is often the result of a long process made by several contributors. Thus, considering only the scientific side, the idea of revolution is problematic.<\/p>\n<p>The example of Galileo is thus significant: if it had been only a question of science, it appears quite clearly that acceptance would not have been a problem. He had indeed convinced the scientific community of his time. However, his work collided with a tense political context in which the Catholic Church was trying to strengthen its power.<\/p>\n<h3>What do I think about it?<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 2816px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Rodin-2014-03.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/bc\/Rodin-2014-03.jpg\" width=\"2816\" height=\"4474\" alt=\"Le Penseur\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Auguste_Rodin\" title=\"Auguste\u00a0Rodin\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Auguste\u00a0Rodin<\/a>\u2019s <em>Le Penseur<\/em>\u2013photo by <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:Thibsweb\" title=\"Thibsweb\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Thibsweb<\/a> under licences <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gnu.org\/licenses\/fdl\" title=\"GFDL\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">GFDL<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" title=\"CC\u00a0BY-SA\u00a04.0\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">CC\u00a0BY-SA\u00a04.0<\/a> via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Rodin-2014-03.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>My point of view is that a scientific revolution is not a purely scientific event. In fact, this term refers to a moment when scientific evolutions are connected with the questions of societies of the time. Scientists themselves are not hermetic to the society in which they live, so it certainly influences the topics they are addressing. However, in the case of what is described as a \u201cscientific revolution,\u201d it is rather a case where scientific advances are influencing society.<\/p>\n<p>Since this is a practical name, I would still use this term in this blog. However, let it make clearly understood that it is ultimately a matter of naming those moments when scientific advances meet the questioning of the time.<\/p>\n<h2>Then, what about me?<\/h2>\n<figure style=\"width: 239px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aristarchos_von_Samos_(Denkmal).jpeg\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/98\/Aristarchos_von_Samos_%28Denkmal%29.jpeg\" width=\"239\" height=\"425\" alt=\"Aristarchus of Samos\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Posthumous statue of Aristarchus of Samos at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aristotle_University_of_Thessaloniki\" title=\"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Aristotle University of Thessaloniki<\/a>\u2013Public domain photo by <a href=\"https:\/\/de.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benutzer:Dr._Manuel\" title=\"Dr.\u00a0Manuel\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Dr.\u00a0Manuel<\/a> via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aristarchos_von_Samos_(Denkmal).jpeg\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In this blog, I indicated that the Aristotelian system can be made compatible with the Bible. Though I do not reject this way to put things, ever since I wrote it I had the objective to discuss it: in this previous article, my main goal was to highlight how much this system was compatible with medieval thought. Thus, I avoided to focus on the real but ultimately few\u2013especially given the size of the corpus\u2013problematic topics. However, I wanted to come back on it, because this formulation can lead to a misconception about the historical status of the Aristotelian system. Starting with the idea that it was considered complete and that it was forbidden to question it. Also, that this status has not changed over time.<\/p>\n<h3>My own limits<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 197px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9,_par_Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/17\/La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9%2C_par_Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre.jpg\/197px-La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9%2C_par_Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre.jpg\" width=\"197\" height=\"479\" alt=\"La V\u00e9rit\u00e9\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">You may think it is some naked woman, but this is actually an allegory for the Truth; <em>La V\u00e9rit\u00e9<\/em> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre\" title=\"Jules\u00a0Lefebvre\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Jules\u00a0Lefebvre<\/a>\u2013public domain image via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9,_par_Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Alright, I have never been entirely satisfied with this wording, but I used it for lack of anything better considering my point then. Therefore, I had the firm intention to come back on it, which is one of the purposes of this article. I wanted to come back on the term \u201cscientific revolution\u201d as well.<\/p>\n<p>The primary purpose of this series of articles is to present my research topics. I think a historical approach ease the understanding. I also think this approach make it easier for me to show how the scientific work is done, which also seems to me an important element to present.<\/p>\n<p>However, I am facing two possible pitfalls.<\/p>\n<p>Firstly, I cannot give all the ramifications of a given subject, or it will overflow my point. This article is an example: I have no prevention concerning the length of the articles, nor to go in deep of a subject. However, one cannot use up these topics, therefore I am forced not to address every element.<\/p>\n<p>For instance, I did not give details about the relationship between Galileo and Kepler, which had not always been cordial, to say the least<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_60');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_3462_1('footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_60');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_60\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">60<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_60\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">On this subject, one can consult: Massimo\u00a0Buccianti, 2003. <em>Galileo e Keplero\u00a0: Filosofia, cosmologia e teologia nell\u2019Et\u00e0 della Controriforma<\/em>, Biblioteca di Cultura Storica. Text in Italian.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_60').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_3462_1_60', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Also, I did not indicate that Kepler was an astrologer and that him too tried to determine the age of the Earth using the Bible. These last two points may seem surprising considered with nowadays point of view, but we must not forget that the scientific method was then in its infancy, Kepler having contributed to establish it.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, I try to find the right balance between giving enough detail to avoid giving an erroneous view of events and avoiding overflowing my point with too many elements. By the way, if you have read a bit of these web-pages, you may have noticed I made evolve the balance in my articles to favor a little more precision rather than brevity, in particular to avoid using formulations on which I would like to come back\u2013by the way, do not hesitate to tell me in the comments what you think of this balance.<\/p>\n<p>The second pitfall comes from the fact that I set myself a double objective. On the one hand, I try to present my domains according to the current state of the art. In this context, I use the historical approach to introduce step by step the various necessary notions, in accordance with current knowledge and vocabulary. On the other hand, I try to present the history that led to the establishment of this knowledge, beyond the clich\u00e9s that may have setted up over time.<\/p>\n<p>The risk is then anachronism, that is to attribute to some previous times ideas and point of view of more recent epochs. I try to indicate regularly the differences in naming and ways of thinking between the periods I mention in my articles and our times. However, I rather warn the reader about this problem.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, there is one last risk: I am of course always liable to make a mistake. As you can easily see, I give numerous bibliographical references and links in my articles. The purpose is not to impress, but to fulfil three goals. First, to give leads for who would be interested in exploring further the topic. Second, to indicate from where I hold the information that I transmit and what justifies my intention. Finally, just as importantly, these references should make it easier for every reader to look for my errors, so that you can tell me if there are erroneous elements in my articles\u2013if you find any, please report them to me and I would be more than happy to correct them.<\/p>\n<h3>There is still much to be said<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 1023px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Rennes_-_Palais_du_parlement_de_Bretagne,_statue_L%27%C3%89loquence_plein_pied.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b7\/Rennes_-_Palais_du_parlement_de_Bretagne%2C_statue_L%27%C3%89loquence_plein_pied.jpg\" width=\"1023\" height=\"1272\" alt=\"Allegory for Eloquence\" class=\"size-large\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Allegory for Eloquence\u2013picture by <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:XIIIfromTOKYO\" title=\"XIIIfromTOKYO\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">XIIIfromTOKYO<\/a> under licences <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gnu.org\/licenses\/fdl\" title=\"GFDL\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">GFDL<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\" title=\"CC\u00a0BY-SA\u00a03.0\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">CC\u00a0BY-SA\u00a03.0<\/a> via <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Rennes_-_Palais_du_parlement_de_Bretagne,_statue_L%27%C3%89loquence_plein_pied.jpg?uselang=en\" title=\"The image on Wikimedia\u00a0Commons.\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia\u00a0Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Concerning this particular article, I hope it will lead to some thinking, as well as some criticism concerning my writings. I also hope you will keep such a state of mind while consulting this series of articles. By the way, the next one would probably focus on mathematics.<\/p>\n<p>There are still so many things I want to present to you, so my conclusion is that I hope you will come back here soon!<\/p>\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_3462_1();\">Notes<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"display: none;\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_3462_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_3462_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_3462_1\" style=\"\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">Notes<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_1');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_1\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">\u039a\u03bb\u03b1\u03cd\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2\u00a0\u03a0\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03b5\u03bc\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, around 150 AD. <em>\u039c\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03be\u03b9\u03c2<\/em>. An English translation: Gerald\u00a0J.\u00a0Toomer, 1998. <em>Ptolemy\u2019s Almagest<\/em>, second edition, Princeton University Press, New\u00a0York, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America. <a href=\"https:\/\/isidore.co\/calibre\/get\/pdf\/Ptolemy%26%2339%3Bs%20Almagest%20-%20Ptolemy%2C%20Claudius%20%26amp%3B%20Toomer%2C%20G.%20J__5114.pdf\" title=\"The Almagest\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_2');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_2\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Denis\u00a0Diderot and Jean\u00a0le\u00a0Rond\u00a0d\u2019Alembert (editors), 1751-1772. <em>Encyclop\u00e9die, ou Dictionnaire raisonn\u00e9 des sciences, des arts et des m\u00e9tiers<\/em>, Briasson, David, Le\u00a0Breton and Durand, Paris, 35 volumes. Text in French. <a href=\"http:\/\/enccre.academie-sciences.fr\/encyclopedie\/\" title=\"\u00c9dition Num\u00e9rique Collaborative et Critique de l\u2019Encyclop\u00e9die\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation of some of its articles is <a href=\"https:\/\/quod.lib.umich.edu\/d\/did\/\" title=\"The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d\u2019Alembert Collaborative Translation Project\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_3');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_3\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Especially his most famous one: Isaac\u00a0Newton, 1687. <em>Philosophi\u00e6 naturalis principia mathematica<\/em>, John\u00a0Streater, London. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/ebooks\/28233?msg=welcome_stranger\" title=\"Philosophi\u00e6 naturalis principia\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation: Ierome\u00a0Bernard\u00a0Cohen and Anne\u00a0Whitman, 1999. <em>Isaac\u00a0Newton: The Principia, Mathematical principles of natural philosophy<\/em>, University of California Press. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.17centurymaths.com\/contents\/newtoncontents.html\" title=\"Isaac\u00a0Newton: Principia\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_4');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_4\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Immanuel\u00a0Kant, 1781. <em>Critik der reinen Vernunft<\/em>, Johann\u00a0Friedrich\u00a0Hartknoch, Riga, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in German. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.deutschestextarchiv.de\/book\/show\/kant_rvernunft_1781\" title=\"Critik der reinen Vernunft\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation from Paul\u00a0Guyer and Allen\u00a0Wood: Immanuel\u00a0Kant, 1999. <em>Critique of Pure Reason<\/em>, Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/ebooks\/4280\" title=\"Critique of Pure Reason\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_5');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_5\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>5<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">\u00c1\u03c1\u03c7\u03b9\u03bc\u03ae\u03b4\u03b7\u03c2, <em>\u03a8\u03b1\u00b5\u00b5\u03af\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2<\/em>. Text in ancient Greek. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.lix.polytechnique.fr\/Labo\/Ilan.Vardi\/psammites.ps\" title=\"Psammites\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by Thomas\u00a0L.\u00a0Heath: Archimedes, 1897. <em>The Sand-reckoner<\/em>, Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.lix.polytechnique.fr\/Labo\/Ilan.Vardi\/sand_reckoner.ps\" title=\"The Sand reckoner\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_6');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_6\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>6<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: Bertrand\u00a0Russel, 1945. <em>A History of Western Philosophy<\/em>, Georg\u00a0Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_7');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_7\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>7<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: Abu\u00a0al-Rayhan\u00a0Muammad\u00a0ibn\u00a0Ahmad\u00a0al-Biruni, edited by Eduard\u00a0Sachau, 1910. <em>Al-Biruni\u2019s India: an Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of Indiae<\/em>, Kegan\u00a0Paul, Trench, Trubner &amp; Co., London.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_8');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_8\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>8<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Nicole\u00a0Oresme, 1377. <em>Livre du Ciel et du Monde<\/em>. Text in ancient French. <a href=\"http:\/\/expositions.bnf.fr\/ciel\/grand\/1-025.htm\" title=\"Le Livre du Ciel et du Monde\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_9');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_9\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>9<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: Victor\u00a0Robert and Edward\u00a0S.\u00a0Kennedy, 1959. \u201cThe planetary Theory of Ibn\u00a0al-Sh\u0101tir,\u201d in: <em>Isis<\/em> 50, pp. 227 \u2013 235. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/227960?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents\" title=\"The planetary Theory of Ibn\u00a0al-Sh\u0101tir\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_10');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_10\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>10<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus, 1543. <em>De revolutionibus orbium c\u0153lestium<\/em>, Johann\u00a0Petreium, Nuremberg, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in Latin. <a href=\"https:\/\/la.wikisource.org\/wiki\/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium\" title=\"De revolutionibus orbium c\u0153lestium\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by Edward\u00a0Rosen: Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus, 1992. <em>On the Revolutions<\/em>, John\u00a0Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.webexhibits.org\/calendars\/year-text-Copernicus.html\" title=\"On the revolutions\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_11');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_11\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>11<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: John\u00a0Henry, 2012. <em>A Short history of scientific thought<\/em>, Palgarve Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hampshire, United\u00a0Kingdom.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_12');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_12\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>12<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus, between 1511 and 1513. <em>De Hypothesibus Motuum C\u0153lestium Commentariolus<\/em>. Text in Latin. An English translation can be found in: Edward\u00a0Rosen, 2004. <em>Three Copernican Treatises<\/em>, second edition, revised edition, Dover Publications, New\u00a0York. <a href=\"http:\/\/copernicus.torun.pl\/en\/archives\/astronomical\/1\/?view=transkrypcja&\" title=\"Commentariolus\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_13');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_13\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>13<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Georg\u00a0Joachim\u00a0von\u00a0Lauchen, 1540. <em>Narratio prima<\/em>, Franz\u00a0Rhode, Dantzig, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in Latin. An English translation can be found in Rosen (2004), see note 12.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_14');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_14\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>14<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">For Copernicus\u2019 biography, one can refer to: Pierre\u00a0Gassendi and Olivier\u00a0Thill, 2002. <em>The Life of Corpernicus 1473 \u2013 1543<\/em>, Xulon Press.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_15');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_15\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>15<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Erasmo\u00a0Reinholdo, 1551. <em>Prutenic\u00e6 Tabul\u00e6 C\u0153lestium Motuum<\/em>, Ulrich\u00a0Morhard, T\u00fcbingen, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/digital.slub-dresden.de\/fileadmin\/data\/278475426\/278475426_tif\/jpegs\/278475426.pdf\" title=\"Prutenic\u00e6 Tabul\u00e6 C\u0153lestium Motuum\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_16');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_16\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>16<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Johannes\u00a0Kepler, Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus, Michael\u00a0M\u00e4stlin, and Johannes\u00a0Sh\u00f6ner, 1596. <em>Mysterium cosmographicum<\/em>, Georgius\u00a0Gruppenbachius, T\u00fcbingen, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Reissued in 1621 with comments from Kepler. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.e-rara.ch\/doi\/10.3931\/e-rara-445\" rel=\"noopener\" title=\"Mysterium cosmographicum\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_17');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_17\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>17<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Galileus\u00a0Galileus, 1610. <em>Sidereus nuncius<\/em>, Thomam\u00a0Baglionum, Venice. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.e-rara.ch\/doi\/10.3931\/e-rara-695\" title=\"Sidereus nuncius\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation: Albert\u00a0Van\u00a0Helden, 1989. <em>Galileo\u00a0Galilei, Siderius Nuncius, or The Sideral Messanger<\/em>, The University of Chicago press. <a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/siderealmessenge80gali\" title=\"The Sideral messanger\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_18');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_18\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>18<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ivano\u00a0Dal\u00a0Prete, 2014. \u201cBeing the World Eternal: The Age of the Earth in Renaissance Italy\u201d, in: <em>Isis<\/em> volume 105, number 2, pp. 292 \u2013 317.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_19');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_19\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>19<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Fausto\u00a0da\u00a0Longiano, 1542. <em>Meteorologia<\/em>, Venice. Text in old Italian.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_20');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_20\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>20<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">It seems to me that the seminal work concerning the importance of printing on the evolution of thought is: Elizabeth\u00a0Eisenstein, 1979. <em>The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and cultural transformations in early-modern Europe<\/em>, Cambridge University Press, New\u00a0York. The author has made a version dedicated to popularisation: Elizabeth\u00a0Eisenstein, 1983. <em>The Printing revolution in early modern Europe<\/em>, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United\u00a0Kingdom.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_21');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_21\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>21<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">James\u00a0Ussher, 1650. <em>The Annals of the World<\/em>, E.\u00a0Tyler, London. <a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/AnnalsOfTheWorld\" title=\"The Annals of the World\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_22');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_22\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>22<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: US Geological Survey, 1997. Age of the Earth. <a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.usgs.gov\/gip\/geotime\/age.html\" title=\"Age of the earth\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_23');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_23\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>23<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Nicolau\u00a0Aymerich, 1376. <em>Directorium Inquisitorium<\/em>. Text in Latin. This book has been completed (its size did more than doubled) by Francisco\u00a0Pe\u00f1a in 1578.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_24');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_24\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>24<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Galileo\u2019s letters exposing this point of view have been published and translated into English for instance in: Maurice\u00a0A.\u00a0Finnochiaro, 1989. <em>The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History<\/em>, University of California Press, Berkley. <a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.fr\/books?id=wKCZFJuMCaQC&printsec=frontcover&q=&redir_esc=y&hl=fr#v=onepage&q&f=false\" title=\"The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_25');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_25\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>25<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: Raymond\u00a0Edward\u00a0Brown, 1997. <em>An Introduction to the New Testament<\/em>, Doubleday, New York City.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_26');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_26\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>26<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Aurelius\u00a0Augustinus, 413-426. <em>De Civitate Dei contra paganos<\/em>. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.hs-augsburg.de\/~harsch\/Chronologia\/Lspost05\/Augustinus\/aug_cd00.html\" title=\"De Civitate Dei contra paganos\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by William\u00a0Babcock: Augustine\u00a0of\u00a0Hippo, 2012. <em>The City of God<\/em>, New City Press, New\u00a0York. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ccel.org\/ccel\/schaff\/npnf102\" title=\"Augustine\u2019s City of God\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_27');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_27\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>27<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Matthew\u00a019:29, Mark\u00a010:30.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_28');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_28\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>28<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Psalm\u00a0105:8.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_29');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_29\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>29<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">On this particular matter, one can refer to: Robert\u00a0I.\u00a0Moore, 2012. <em>The War on Heresy: Faith and Power in Medieval Europe<\/em>, Profile Books, London.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_30');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_30\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>30<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: Etienne\u00a0Gilson, 1990. <em>The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (Gifford Lectures 1933-35)<\/em>, University of Notre\u00a0Dame Press, Notre\u00a0Dame, Indiana, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_31');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_31\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>31<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: Eleonore\u00a0Stump, 2003. <em>Aquinas<\/em>, Routledege, Abington-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, United\u00a0Kingdom.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_32');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_32\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>32<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Stephani\u00a0Tempier, 1270 then 1277. <em>Codempnationes<\/em>, Paris. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/enfrancaissurantimodernism.blogspot.fr\/2012\/01\/index-in-stephani-tempier.html\" title=\"Codempnationes\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_33');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_33\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>33<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">For a more complete presentation of the different currents that led to the Protestant Reformation, one can consult: Euan\u00a0Cameron, 2012. <em>The European Reformation<\/em>, second edition, Oxford University Press.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_34');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_34\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>34<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Martinus\u00a0Luther, 1517. <em>Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum<\/em>, Wittemberg, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in Latin. <a href=\"https:\/\/la.wikisource.org\/wiki\/Disputatio_pro_declaratione_virtutis_indulgentiarum\" title=\"Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English version can be found in: Timothy\u00a0J.\u00a0Wengert, 2015. <em>Martin\u00a0Luther\u2019s Ninety-Five Theses: With Introduction, Commentary, and Study guide<\/em>, Fortress Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikisource.org\/wiki\/Works_of_Martin_Luther,_with_introductions_and_notes,_Volume_1\/Disputation_on_Indulgences#Ninety-five_Theses\" title=\"Disputation on Indulgences\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_35');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_35\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>35<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">On this subject, one can consult for instance: R.\u00a0Po-chia\u00a0Hsia (editor), 2008. \u201cReform and Expansion 1500\u20131660,\u201d volume six of <em>The Cambridge History of Christianity<\/em>, Cambridge University Press.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_36');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_36\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>36<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Matthew\u00a021:12-17, Mark\u00a011:15-19, Luke\u00a019:45-48, and John\u00a02:13-16.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_37');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_37\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>37<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">On this subject, one can consult: Margaret\u00a0M.\u00a0Mitchell and Frances\u00a0M.\u00a0Young (editors), 2006. \u201cOrigins to Constantine,\u201d volume one of <em>The Cambridge History of Christianity<\/em>, Cambridge University Press.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_38');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_38\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>38<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Martin\u00a0Luther, 1566. <em>Tischreden<\/em>, edited by Johannes\u00a0Mathesus, J.\u00a0Aurifaber, V.\u00a0Dietrich, Ernst\u00a0Kroker, et al., Eisleben, Holy\u00a0Roman\u00a0Empire. Text in Latin. A translation in English by William\u00a0Hazlitt: Martin\u00a0Luther, 2005. <em>The Table Talk of Martin\u00a0Luther<\/em>, Dover Publications Inc, Mineola, New\u00a0York. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ccel.org\/ccel\/luther\/tabletalk.html\" title=\"Table Talk\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. I am referring to entry 4638.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_39');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_39\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>39<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">If you know some French, you can consult: Richard\u00a0Stauffer, 1971. \u201cCalvin et Copernic,\u201d <em>Revue de l\u2019histoire des religions<\/em>, 179 (1), pp.\u00a031 \u2013 40. Text in French. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.persee.fr\/doc\/rhr_0035-1423_1971_num_179_1_9663\" title=\"Calvin et Copernic\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_40');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_40\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>40<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Leo\u00a0X, 1521. <em>Decet Romanum Pontificem<\/em>, Vatican. Text in Latin. <a href=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/33\/Decet_Romanum_Pontificam.jpg\" title=\"Decet Romanum Pontificem\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line via Wikimedia<\/a>. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.papalencyclicals.net\/Leo10\/l10decet.htm\" title=\"Decet Romanum Pontificem\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">An English translation is available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_41');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_41\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>41<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">For details on this council, one can refer to: John\u00a0W.\u00a0O\u2019Malley, 2013. <em>Trent: What Happened at the Council<\/em>, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_42');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_42\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>42<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Rom\u00e6 Inquisitionis, 1559. <em>Index Auctorum et librorum prohibitorum<\/em>, Rom\u00e6 ex officina. Text in Latin. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.aloha.net\/~mikesch\/ILP-1559.htm\" title=\"Index librorum prohibitorum\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_43');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_43\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>43<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Leo\u00a0X, 1513. <em>Apostolici Regiminis<\/em>, papal bull, Vatican. Text en Latin.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_44');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_44\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>44<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">If you know some French, you can consult: Yves\u00a0Gingras, 2010. \u201cL\u2019Atomisme contre la transsubstantiation,\u201d <em>La\u00a0Recherche<\/em> n\u00b0\u202f446, pp. 92 \u2013 94.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_45');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_45\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>45<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Concerning the ins and outs of Galileo affair, one can refer to: Emerson\u00a0Thomas\u00a0McMullen, 2003. \u201cGalileo\u2019s condemnation: the real and complex story,\u201d in <em>Georgia Journal of Science<\/em>, volume 61, number 2, pp. 90 \u2013 106.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_46');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_46\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>46<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Galileo\u00a0Galilei, 1632. <em>Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo<\/em>, Batista\u00a0Landini, Florence. Text in Italian. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.liberliber.it\/mediateca\/libri\/g\/galilei\/dialogo_sopra\/pdf\/dialog_p.pdf\" title=\"Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by Stillman\u00a0Drake: Galileo\u00a0Galilei, 1953. <em>Dialogue concerning the two chief world systems\u2013Ptolemaic & Copernican<\/em>, second edition, University of California Press. <a href=\"http:\/\/archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de\/cgi-bin\/toc\/toc.cgi?step=thumb&dir=galil_syste_065_en_1661\" title=\"Dialogue concerning two world systems\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_47');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_47\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>47<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: Desmond\u00a0Clarke, 2006. <em>Descartes: A Biography<\/em>, Cambridge University Press.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_48');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_48\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>48<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ren\u00e9\u00a0Descartes, 1664. <em>Trait\u00e9 du monde et de la lumi\u00e8re<\/em>. Text in French. A bilingual (French and English) edition with a translation by Michael\u00a0Sean\u00a0Mahoney: Ren\u00e9\u00a0Descartes, 1979. <em>Le Monde, ou Trait\u00e9 de la lumi\u00e8re<\/em>, Abaris\u00a0Book, New-York. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.princeton.edu\/~hos\/mike\/texts\/descartes\/world\/worldfr.htm\" title=\"The World\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_49');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_49\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>49<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Galileo\u00a0Galilei, 1638. <em>Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche Intorno a Due Nuove Scienze<\/em>, Leyde, Holland. Text in Italian. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.liberliber.it\/mediateca\/libri\/g\/galilei\/discorsi_e_dimostrazioni\/pdf\/discor_p.pdf\" title=\"Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche Intorno a Due Nuove Scienze\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by Stillman\u00a0Drake: Galileo\u00a0Galilei, 1974. <em>Two New Sciences<\/em>, University of Wisconsin Press. <a href=\"http:\/\/galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu\/tns_draft\/index.html\" title=\"Two New Sciences\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_50');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_50\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>50<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">If you know some French, you can refer to: Pierre-No\u00ebl\u00a0Mayaud, 1997. <em>La Condamnation des livres coperniciens et sa r\u00e9vocation \u00e0 la lumi\u00e8re de documents in\u00e9dits des Congr\u00e9gations de l\u2019Index et de l\u2019Inquisition<\/em>, Universit\u00e9 pontificale gr\u00e9gorienne. <a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.fr\/books?id=yE2G1xjWkG8C&printsec=frontcover&hl=fr#v=onepage&q&f=false\" title=\"La Condamnation des livres coperniciens et sa r\u00e9vocation \u00e0 la lumi\u00e8re de documents in\u00e9dits des Congr\u00e9gations de l\u2019Index et de l\u2019Inquisition\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Partially available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_51');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_51\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>51<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: Michael\u00a0Segre, 1999. \u201cGalileo: A \u2018rehabilitation\u2019 that has never taken place,\u201d <em>Endeavour<\/em>, 23 (1), pp.\u00a020\u201323. Doi: <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0160-9327(99)01185-0\" title=\"Galileo: A \u201crehabilitation\u201d that has never taken place\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/s0160-9327(99)01185-0<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_52');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_52\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>52<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Charles\u00a0Darwin, 1859. <em>On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life<\/em>, John\u00a0Murray, London. <a href=\"http:\/\/publicliterature.org\/books\/origin_of_species\/1\" title=\"The Origins of Species\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_53');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_53\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>53<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Once again, forgive my being French, but on this subject you can consult: Yves\u00a0Gingras, 2016. <em>L\u2019impossible dialogue<\/em>, PUF, Paris. Text in French.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_54');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_54\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>54<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: F.\u00a0Jamil\u00a0Ragep and Sally\u00a0P.\u00a0Ragep (editors), 1996. <em>Tradition, Transmission, Transformation. Proceedings of two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma<\/em>, E.\u00a0J.\u00a0Brill, Leiden, New-York, K\u00f6ln.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_55');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_55\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>55<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See for instance: Thomas\u00a0Samuel\u00a0Kuhn, 1957. <em>The Copernican Revolution<\/em>, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_56');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_56\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>56<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">This is the last reference in French which is not translated in English I give, but on this touchy subject, the following book gives elements way better than I can do: Faouzia\u00a0Charfi, 2013. <em>La Science voil\u00e9e<\/em>, Odile\u00a0Jacob, Paris. Text in French.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_57');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_57\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>57<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Readers interested on history of wheel, as well as origins of Indo-European languages can refer to: David\u00a0W.\u00a0Anthony, 2007. <em>The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World<\/em>, Princeton University Press, New\u00a0Jersey, United\u00a0States\u00a0of\u00a0America.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_58');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_58\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>58<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Gaston\u00a0Bachelard, 1938. <em>La Formation de l\u2019esprit scientifique<\/em>, Vrin, Paris. Text in French. <a href=\"http:\/\/classiques.uqac.ca\/classiques\/bachelard_gaston\/formation_esprit_scientifique\/formation_esprit.pdf\" title=\"La Formation de l\u2019esprit scientifique\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">Available on-line<\/a>. An English translation by M.\u00a0McAllester\u00a0Jones: Gaston\u00a0Bachelard, 2002. <em>The Formation of the Scientific Mind<\/em>, Clinamen, Bolton, Grand\u00a0Manchester, United\u00a0Kingdom.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_59');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_59\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>59<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Thomas\u00a0Samuel\u00a0Kuhn, 1962. <em>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions<\/em>, University of Chicago Press.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_3462_1_60');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_3462_1_60\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>60<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">On this subject, one can consult: Massimo\u00a0Buccianti, 2003. <em>Galileo e Keplero\u00a0: Filosofia, cosmologia e teologia nell\u2019Et\u00e0 della Controriforma<\/em>, Biblioteca di Cultura Storica. Text in Italian.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_3462_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_3462_1').show(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_3462_1').text('\u2212'); } function footnote_collapse_reference_container_3462_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_3462_1').hide(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_3462_1').text('+'); } function footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_3462_1() { if (jQuery('#footnote_references_container_3462_1').is(':hidden')) { footnote_expand_reference_container_3462_1(); } else { footnote_collapse_reference_container_3462_1(); } } function footnote_moveToReference_3462_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_3462_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } } function footnote_moveToAnchor_3462_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_3462_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } }<\/script>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>In this blog and elsewhere, you have probably already seen the expression \u201cCopernican revolution\u201d. This expression highlights the fact that Nicolaus\u00a0Copernicus (1473 \u2013 1543) provoked a major change in perspectives by showing that it is more relevant to consider this is the Earth that is rotating around the Sun rather than the opposite. To this &hellip; <a href=\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/\" class=\"more-link\">Continuer la lecture de <span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Did Copernicus really made the (scientific) revolution?<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[50],"tags":[166,98,138,168,107,69],"class_list":["post-3462","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-science-en","tag-epistemology","tag-history-of-sciences","tag-philosophy","tag-religions-en","tag-science-en","tag-scientific-popularisation"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.1.1 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Did Copernicus really made the (scientific) revolution? &#8211; Vu d\u2019ici<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"You may have heard about so-called scientific revolution. 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What are the presuppositions behind this expression and what are the flows of my own approach?\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Vu d\u2019ici\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2018-03-11T22:29:06+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2018-03-17T03:34:32+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f2\/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg\" \/>\n<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Yoann Le Bars\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"\u00c9crit par\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Yoann Le Bars\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Dur\u00e9e de lecture estim\u00e9e\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"47 minutes\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"Article\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/#article\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/\"},\"author\":{\"name\":\"Yoann Le Bars\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/#\/schema\/person\/90c5a2de7ad2db1184bbe140ebea1576\"},\"headline\":\"Did Copernicus really made the (scientific) revolution?\",\"datePublished\":\"2018-03-11T22:29:06+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2018-03-17T03:34:32+00:00\",\"mainEntityOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/\"},\"wordCount\":9371,\"commentCount\":0,\"publisher\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/#\/schema\/person\/90c5a2de7ad2db1184bbe140ebea1576\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f2\/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg\",\"keywords\":[\"Epistemology\",\"History of sciences\",\"Philosophy\",\"Religions\",\"Science\",\"Scientific popularisation\"],\"articleSection\":[\"Science\"],\"inLanguage\":\"fr-FR\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"CommentAction\",\"name\":\"Comment\",\"target\":[\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/#respond\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/\",\"name\":\"Did Copernicus really made the (scientific) revolution? &#8211; Vu d\u2019ici\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/le-bars.net\/yoann\/en\/2018\/03\/12\/did-copernicus-really-make-the-scientific-revolution\/#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f2\/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2018-03-11T22:29:06+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2018-03-17T03:34:32+00:00\",\"description\":\"You may have heard about so-called scientific revolution. 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