Scientific popularisation Archives

How Microsoft did not negotiate the contract of the century

Paul Allen and Bill Gates in 1970 sitting in front of a Teletype Model 33 ASR terminal at Lakeside School. — Paul Allen and Bill Gates in 1970 at Lakeside School – public domain photo by Bruce Burgess *via* Wikimedia Commons.

MO5.com association, of which I am a member, aims at preserving information technologies heritage. As part of this activity, we also document the history of information technologies. Concerning this history, one can regularly hear that Microsoft negotiated a contract with IBM in the very early 1980s, which allowed Microsoft to become the giant it is today, at the expense of its former partner.

Therefore, explaining how Bill Gates, a good poker player and fine negotiator, managed to negotiate the contract of the century, the one that led Microsoft to become the leader in the world of personal computers to the detriment of IBM. It is all part of Bill Gates’ legend, which does not seem to bother him.

However, looking at the documents from the time, the evidence tells a different story. These documents paint a picture of a combination of circumstances rather than a skilful negotiation by the young head of a struggling start-up … Let me tell you how Microsoft did not negotiate what would become the contract of the century.

Chloroquine and ethics

Image au microscope électronique du SARS-CoV-2 — Electron microscope image of SARS-CoV-2, the virus causing Covid-19 disease—image made by the NIAID under licence Creative Common Attribution 2.0 Generic via Wikimedia Commons.

The following article complements my previous one concerning the COVID-19 pandemic and chloroquine. I suggest you read it first, as it will give you an idea of what the scientific literature says about the action of chloroquine on COVID-19 as of April 7^th, 2020. However, this article did neither address the question of ethics, nor fully address whether the situation could justify not to follow the usual methodology.

Indeed, this objection is regularly raised: “even though it has not been established that hydroxychloroquine can actually be used as a treatment for COVID-19, ultimately the dosage is well known and there is probably not a great risk in administering it to patients.” Moreover, there is a view which seems to have some popularity, stating that, considering the circumstances, clinicians should not take too much care to comply with methodology, as the emergency dictates to be less rigorous with procedures. These two issues are related. To address them, one must both look at the collective experience and assess what is not known.

A PDF version of this article is available. An audio version (with quite a robotic voice) is also available.

A worrying suspicion

On March 25^th, 2020, a study presenting the case of 416 patients with COVID-19 was published¹Shaobo Shi, Mu Qin, Bo Shen, Yuli Cain, Tao Liu, Fan Yang, Wei Gong, Xu Liu, Jinjun Liang, Qinyan Zhao, He Huang, Bo Yang, and Congxin Huang, 2020. ‘Association of cardiac injury with mortality in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China’, JAMA Cardiology. Doi: 10.1001/jamacardio.2020.0950. Among these patients, 19.7 % had cardiac problems. It is not surprising that patients in respiratory distress, one of the complications of COVID-19, have heart problems. However, the study reports a suspicion that these cardiac problems are not a consequence of this respiratory distress, but directly due to the action of the virus. Another compilation of COVID-19 case analysis also supports this suspicion²Elissa Driggin, Mahesh V. Madhavan, Behnood Bikdeli, Taylor Chuich, Justin Laracy, Giuseppe Bondi-Zoccai, Tyler S. Brown, Caroline Der Nigoghossian, David A. Zidar, Jennifer Haythe, Daniel Brodie, Joshua A. Beckman, Ajay J. Kirtane, Gregg W. Stone, Harlan M. Krumholz and Sahil A. Parikh, 2020. ‘Cardiovascular considerations for patients, health care workers, and health systems during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic’, Journal of th American College of Cardiology. Doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.03.031.

Notes[+]

Notes
↑1	Shaobo Shi, Mu Qin, Bo Shen, Yuli Cain, Tao Liu, Fan Yang, Wei Gong, Xu Liu, Jinjun Liang, Qinyan Zhao, He Huang, Bo Yang, and Congxin Huang, 2020. ‘Association of cardiac injury with mortality in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China’, JAMA Cardiology. Doi: 10.1001/jamacardio.2020.0950
↑2	Elissa Driggin, Mahesh V. Madhavan, Behnood Bikdeli, Taylor Chuich, Justin Laracy, Giuseppe Bondi-Zoccai, Tyler S. Brown, Caroline Der Nigoghossian, David A. Zidar, Jennifer Haythe, Daniel Brodie, Joshua A. Beckman, Ajay J. Kirtane, Gregg W. Stone, Harlan M. Krumholz and Sahil A. Parikh, 2020. ‘Cardiovascular considerations for patients, health care workers, and health systems during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic’, Journal of th American College of Cardiology. Doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.03.031

On Chloroquine

This article is written under rather peculiar circumstances, in fact quite dramatic ones to say the least: after a first case declared on November 17^th, 2019¹Josephine Ma, March 13^th, 2020. ‘Coronavirus: China’s first confirmed Covid-19 case traced back to November 17’, South China Morning Post. Available on-line., a COVID-19 pandemic²World Health Organization (WHO), March 11^th, 2020. WHO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19, WHO. Available on-line. has spread throughout the world. Among several consequences, this pandemic caused the confinement of the French population from March 17^th, 2020 at noon. I wrote the following article in France during this confinement. Actually, the seriousness of the pandemic led a group of scientific mediators do launch a coordinate prevention message on March 14^th, 2020 at 6 p.m. I associated myself to this message.

Prior to confinement, on February 25^th, 2020, the IHU Méditerranée-infection released a video stating that a molecule derived from quinine, being chloroquine, is an effective treatment against COVID-19:

Didier Raoult, 2020. ‘Coronavirus : vers une sortie de crise ?’, IHU Méditerranée-infection.

This was the starting point for a major media coverage of chloroquine and another derivative from quinine, being hydroxychloroquine. Since this media coverage is extremely problematic, I would like to try to give you some clearer insights. The first goal of this article will be to give you some reliable sources, as quite a lot of uninteresting opinions were given, and too few facts. Yet the facts are there. This article will therefore not contain any opinion.

Notes[+]

Notes
↑1	Josephine Ma, March 13^th, 2020. ‘Coronavirus: China’s first confirmed Covid-19 case traced back to November 17’, South China Morning Post. Available on-line.
↑2	World Health Organization (WHO), March 11^th, 2020. WHO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19, WHO. Available on-line.

Did Copernicus really made the (scientific) revolution?

Portrait of Nicolaus Copernicus, exhibited at the Toruń Museum–public domain image, via Wikimedia Commons.

In this blog and elsewhere, you have probably already seen the expression “Copernican revolution”. This expression highlights the fact that Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543) provoked a major change in perspectives by showing that it is more relevant to consider this is the Earth that is rotating around the Sun rather than the opposite. To this first upheaval echoes Galileo Galilei’s (1564 – 1642) works. The latter, on the basis of Copernicus’ work, among others, has definitively shown that Claudius Ptolemy’s (around 90 AD – about 168) system, published in the Almagest¹Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος, around 150 AD. Μαθηματική σύνταξις. An English translation: Gerald J. Toomer, 1998. Ptolemy’s Almagest, second edition, Princeton University Press, New York, United States of America. Available on-line. and according to which, in agreement with Aristotelian physics, the Earth was motionless in the centre of the World, was wrong.

I have already presented this, with a view from here. As I have indicated before, they were both preceded by Nicole Oresme’s (about 1320 or 1322 – 1382) work. Galileo also used Johannes Kepler’s (1571 – 1630) work, among others. Therefore, I have intentionally used the expression “Copernican revolution,” as well as “epistemic revolution.” But still remains the question I would like to tackle in this article: though this expression is commonly used, is it really relevant to talk about revolution? My purpose is also to lead you, my dear reader, to make some critical analysis of what I am publishing here.

Continue reading Did Copernicus really made the (scientific) revolution?

Notes[+]

Notes
↑1	Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος, around 150 AD. Μαθηματική σύνταξις. An English translation: Gerald J. Toomer, 1998. Ptolemy’s Almagest, second edition, Princeton University Press, New York, United States of America. Available on-line.

Falling bodies: Galileo sets up Aristotle to the fall

Galileo GALILEI — Portrait of Galileo Galilei by Giusto Sustermans in 1636 – image from public domain via Wikimedia Common.

As seen twice with a view from here, works from Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543), Giordano Bruno (1548 – 1600), Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630) and Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642), which have been preceded by those of Nicole Oresme (circa 1320-1322 – 1382), completely challenged the Aristotelian model. In this questioning, Galileo did not settle with astronomy. He also tackled several other fundamental subjects, one of which has a great influence on my areas of research: the fall of bodies.

Continue reading Falling bodies: Galileo sets up Aristotle to the fall

William had a good razor!

Guillaume d’Ockham — William of Ockham, sketch from manuscript *Summa Logicae* (William of Ockham, 1323) – public domain image *via* Wikimedia Commons.

The law of parsimony – sometimes called Ockham’s razor after the English Franciscan monk William of Ockham (circa 1285 – 1347), a pioneer in logic – is a principle common to philosophy and science. In fact, it has been stated before, the oldest occurrence that I have found is due to Aristotle¹Ἀριστοτέλης, Φυσικὴ ἀκρόασις. Available on-line. An English translation by Robin Waterfield: David Bostock (editor), 1999. Physics, Oxford University Press. Available on-line. (384 – 322 BC), who attributes it to Empedocles (circa 490 – about 435 BC). However, Proclus (412 AD – 485) traces it back to Pythagoras (about 580 – about 495 BC)²The only version I know of the work in question is this German edition, which appears to be considered the reference: Manitius, C. (éditor et translator), 1909. Procli Diadochi hypotyposis astronomicarum positionum (Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana), Teubner, Leipzig. Reprinted in 1974: Teubner, Stuttgart..

This principle is not always well understood, as it is sometimes used in a manner denoting a misunderstanding about what it actually means. I propose you to see a brief history of this law before commenting on what it means. This article is therefore one of the series on history of science and popularisation I started with a view from here.

No, I have not yet specified what states this law. This is a barely honest process that aims to create an almost unbearable suspense to make you captive of my prose, so that you will read this whole article. However, do not worry: the explanation comes in a few lines!

Continue reading William had a good razor!

Notes[+]

Notes
↑1	Ἀριστοτέλης, Φυσικὴ ἀκρόασις. Available on-line. An English translation by Robin Waterfield: David Bostock (editor), 1999. Physics, Oxford University Press. Available on-line.
↑2	The only version I know of the work in question is this German edition, which appears to be considered the reference: Manitius, C. (éditor et translator), 1909. Procli Diadochi hypotyposis astronomicarum positionum (Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana), Teubner, Leipzig. Reprinted in 1974: Teubner, Stuttgart.

E-Luminesciences: the blog of Jean-Pierre Luminet

Jean-Pierre Luminet is the author of the blog e-Luminesciences. But not only: he is also an astrophysicist, cnrs research director at the Laboratoire d’astrophysique de Marseille, as well as at the Laboratoire Univers et théorie. But not only: he also has scientific popularisation and cultural activities. His blog presents all of these activities. This blog has an English version.

Among his notable works, he is a pioneer in black holes realistic representations. As early as 1979¹Jean-Pierre Luminet, 1979. Image of a Spherical Black Hole with Thin Accretion Disk, Astronomy and Astrophysics, n° 75, pp. 228 – 235. Available on line., he proposed a more realistic and accurate one than the one presented in Interstellar²Christopher Nolan, 2014. Interstellar, Syncopy Films and Lynda Obst Productions.. He also worked on the form – actually, its topology – of the Universe, which led him to introduce the concept of Wraparound Universe³Jean-Pierre Luminet, 2008. The Wraparound Universe, AK Peters Ltd..

Continue reading E-Luminesciences: the blog of Jean-Pierre Luminet

Notes[+]

Notes
↑1	Jean-Pierre Luminet, 1979. Image of a Spherical Black Hole with Thin Accretion Disk, Astronomy and Astrophysics, n° 75, pp. 228 – 235. Available on line.
↑2	Christopher Nolan, 2014. Interstellar, Syncopy Films and Lynda Obst Productions.
↑3	Jean-Pierre Luminet, 2008. The Wraparound Universe, AK Peters Ltd.

Everything is relative, my dear Bruno!

Portrait of Giordano Bruno (nineteenth century, after an engraving published in the Book of the President, 1578) – image in public domain via Wikimedia Commons.

Even if special¹A. Einstein, 1905. Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper, Annalen der Physik, n° 17, pp. 891 – 921. It can be read on line. An English version translated by George Barker Jeffery is available on line. and general relativity²A. Einstein, 1916. Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie, Annalen der Physik, n° 49, pp. 769 – 822. It can be read on line. An English version translated by Alfred Engel can be read on line. theories were introduced by Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955), the principle of relativity were introduced in Physics much earlier. It is called Galilean relativity and were introduced by … Giordano Bruno (1548 – 1600).

Of course, if this first form of physical relativity is qualified “Galilean,” it is because Galileo had something to do in its formulation. The introduction of this principle is one of the main elements of the epistemological revolution to which I referred earlier. This article is therefore a continuation of the series on the history of science that I started. It will also be the occasion, once again, to introduce some concepts that will be useful for future popularisation articles to come.

Continue reading Everything is relative, my dear Bruno!

Notes[+]

Notes
↑1	A. Einstein, 1905. Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper, Annalen der Physik, n° 17, pp. 891 – 921. It can be read on line. An English version translated by George Barker Jeffery is available on line.
↑2	A. Einstein, 1916. Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie, Annalen der Physik, n° 49, pp. 769 – 822. It can be read on line. An English version translated by Alfred Engel can be read on line.

How I extended Galileo’s work!

Spring tide in Wimereux (Pas-de-Calais, France) – photo by Marc Ryckaert under licence CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

I have already mentioned it: it is about time that I present the topics that I am interested in my work. As I have indicated on this site home page and as can be deduced from my resume, my areas of expertise are applied mathematics and theoretical computer science. My scope is physical oceanography. Specifically, I am reproducing ocean dynamics on computers.

However, though being a still evolving discipline, the study of ocean dynamics has a long history. The oldest references I have found were written during the antique times. The main topic on ocean dynamics they address is tide. I intend to present this story here. Much of the information you will find in the following comes from Bernard Simon’s La Marée océanique côtière¹B. Simon, 2007. La Marée océanique côtière, collection “Synthèses”, Institut océanographique éditeur.. The following is an extract from the introduction of my Ph.D. thesis²Y. Le Bars, 2010. Modélisation de la dynamique océanique barotrope dans l’estuaire et le plateau amazoniens, Ph.D. thesis, Université de Toulouse III – Paul Sabatier.. This thesis focused on the development of an ocean model and its application to the estuary of the Amazon, so I do not claim to have achieved a definitive historical study: the following is a summary, albeit detailed, but with all the limitations of this exercise.

Continue reading How I extended Galileo’s work!

Notes[+]

Notes
↑1	B. Simon, 2007. La Marée océanique côtière, collection “Synthèses”, Institut océanographique éditeur.
↑2	Y. Le Bars, 2010. Modélisation de la dynamique océanique barotrope dans l’estuaire et le plateau amazoniens, Ph.D. thesis, Université de Toulouse III – Paul Sabatier.

The Big Bang: when the Universe is not banging!

The microwave sky, one of the oldest known radiation, as seen by the Planck mission – © esa.

Is it because it concerns the origins of things? Anyway, the Big Bang is a scientific subject which everyone seems to have heard of. However, it appears that general ideas about it are not really clear.

As it will be question of the Big Bang in the subjects I will address soon in this website, here is an opportunity to inaugurate scientific popularisation articles in my blog: I propose to present the basics of the Big Bang, using simple experiments that everyone can do at home.

Continue reading The Big Bang: when the Universe is not banging!